Environmental Factors Essay Example for Free

Environmental Factors EssayThere are many environmental factors that shanghai the worldwide and domestic selling strategies of organizations. What is necessary is an assessment of the companys attempts at positioning its product to meet the needs of an undisclosed market. Environmental factors always affect the domestic and international marketing performance of companies in many environments. What environmental factors do is that they shape and set targets on the entry and operational decisions of coca plant green goddess Limited.Established in 1886, coca plant Cola owns four of the worlds top five non alcoholic beverages, operates in everywhere two hundred countries and serves over one point five billion consumers locally and international. The environmental factors that Coca Cola has to battle with include the level of competition, cultural attributes, consumer characteristics, political and legal concerns. These factors sacrifice an impaction on both the potential loc al and international marketing functions of the company. One factor affecting the marketing decisions of Coca Cola is competition among alcoholic beverages.These competitive factors include pricing, advertising, production innovation and brand and trademark development and protection. Of interest to us is the fact that one of Coca Colas major competitors is PepsiCo. The marketing decisions of the company have to be guided strategically because it impacts on the actual sales levels of the firm. Coca Cola continues to maintain a cutting advance in the industry because it continues to uphold its hallmarked values of refresh the world, inspiring moments of optimism and creating value through making a difference.Cultural also has a part to swordplay in the marketing decisions of Coca Cola. Of later, governments across the world have been placing pressure on beverage companies to regulate alcohol content because they affect consumers thinking. firearm Coca Cola does not have to fight up with this cultural implication, it may have to attend to means of re-establishing consumer loyalty. For example, Marketing Coca-Cola in chinaware has been a long and trying road. Firstly opening bottling plants in Shanghai and Tianjin in 1927 and then a third plant opened in Qingdao in 1930, Coca had a fight gaining a solid marketing lead.After a 30-year absence from the country, The Coca-Cola Company re-entered China in 1979, following the re-establishment of relations amid China and the United States. Coca-Cola was the first American consumer product to return to China and is doing very well today. Another environmental factor affecting Coca Colas development of effective marketing tools and campaigns across the world is legal requirements for entry and set up. All multinational companies are forced to abide by laws requiring richly tax entries although maximum profits are to be repatriated.It is Coca Colas policy to comply to consumer protection laws, occupational, health a nd safety acts, and local statues and regulations concerning advertising, transportation, dispersion and food and safety laws. Additionally, Coca Colas principle challenge was is water resource management which in some countries is bound by legalities. In 2004, the company was forced to take a major step in reducing the potential impact of climatic damage via the use of coolers and vending machines. So that dealing with legal implications enabled Coca Cola to adapt a marketing strategy that considers its friendly responsibility.The end result of that was Coca Cola, partnering with the United Nations Environment class and Greenpeace International as a means of finding natural refrigerants. Explain how technology impacts the organizations marketing decisions. Coca Cola decisions have been affected by the impact of technology. In an interview done by a researcher, he commented that as industry leaders it is Coca Colas responsibility to invest in the research and development necessar y to develop economically viable and commercially available refrigeration solutions to take us toward an HFC-free, climate-friendly future.We hope that other companies will total our commitment to sustainable refrigeration. By loping together, we can continue to reduce the impact of commercial equipment on the environment. It is obvious that Inorder for Coca Cola to remain a leader in the beverage industry there was the need to re-examine its products and production processes its packaging, design, equipment and timber assurance. Coca Cola attempts to strike a balance between the use of modern and traditional technologies depending on the marketing initiative and project location.Interestingly, with the launch of eKOfreshment, Coca Cola used more than ten different scientific options to improve its environmental performance, regulatory compliance and overall price and operational costs. The end result of using technology as a point of quote for marketing is the winning of the United States Environmental Protection Agencys Climate Protection Award for their joint efforts in promoting the development of environmentally friendly commercial refrigeration technology through the creation of the refrigerants naturally coalition.So that as Coca Cola evolves with technology its marketing habits and values change to accommodate consumer characteristics and behaviours. Of great sizeableness to Coca Cola is their social responsibility and ethical considerations of which its management has found to be a contributing factor to the development of a strong marketing campaign globally. In analyzing its importance, we must consider the companys priority its marketplace, workplace, environment and community. To us, this is a key side Coca Cola has opted to have social responsibility as a sub heading to their website.In the marketplace, they take pride in quality, marketing more than 450 brands and over 2,800 beverage products, just lock in living up to giving our consume rs a choice of still or sparking beverages that refresh, hydrate, energize or nourish. Our ethical value is that each of those products must be of the highest quality and must meet consumers changing tastes, needs and expectations. In each of the more than 200 countries where we operate, Coca Cola is an active member of the worry community, working afford in hand with local individuals, merchants and governments to improve the health and prosperity of the local economy and environment.We know that the continued health and sustainable growth of our business depends on the long-term health of the communities that surround it. After all, we need healthy consumers, communities, environments and economies for our business to thrive. So we encourage human right laws in the workplace as our business ultimately depends on the combined talents, skills, knowledge, experience and passion make Coca Cola who it is.Wherever Coca Cola operates, it seeks to get involved in the work of communities , governmental organizations and NGOs to create and support projects most relevant to them. Marketing is a critical step in the success or failure of a company. For Coca Cola, an international company operating in years of integrity and business sense, today they have stood to repeat the rewards of their actions. Together with many other partners, this company continues to fudge it way to be a continued leader in the beverage industry.ReferenceBlythe, Jim. (2004). Canada. Financial Times Prentice Hall.

Grandparent raising their grandchildren and the social implication Essay Example for Free

Grandparent rearing their grandchildren and the social tax deduction EssayIn American society, grandparent spend a penny been involved in the issues of raising their grandchildren in situation where the parent are not available, unwilling or not able to give sufficient pityfulness for their children. In another(prenominal) instances grandparent participate in taking care of their grandchildren even if the situation of parent are willing to care for their children. This is due to traditional cultures give grandparent clear and direct duty for taking care and nurturing of their grandchildren.Traditionally, relationship between grandchildren and grandparent has been a special one but the current trend and growth of grandparent raising and taking care of grandparent has raise questions. In the past three decades, growth of the grandparent has gone beyond the perceived traditional role to social problem attracting police detective to study social implication of their role (Ge en Rob, 2004). A part from the traditional role of grandparent caring for their grandchildren being sentimental, this role in many instances has change to unequivocal caring and maintaining them.Their relationship has been special but the current trend actor grandparent are taking responsibility of raising a second family. In the customary circumstances, children are expected to raised under intact family assume to having presence of both parent living in a favorable conditions. Traditionally, children would visit their grandparent in a situation where they are not living together over the weekends and sent back to their parent after the weekend.This trend has changed as the luxury of displace children to their parent of the weekend has changed to taking absolute care since the parent are unavailable, not able or not in position to take care of their children (Geen Rob, 2004). Grandparents staying with their grandchildren are expected to take responsibility of raising and mai ntaining them. This result to social implication as the grandparent get to this role due prevailing circumstance other than roughlything planned. Parenting role requires commitment or devotion as well as employment of financial resources.Roles of taking care of the grandchildren give grandparents massive responsibilities which may infer to emotional straining. The raise in number of families under absolute care of grandparent has make up to a questionable level which is beyond the traditional role. Study on the grandparent raising their grandchildren is of import since it may evaluate the cause of the current trends, social implication to the grandparent and grandchildren, measures and solution to be taken.This paper investigates the tread and growth of the grandparent raising their grandchildren, its implication and solution to this problem and the help which can be advanced to this form of parenting (Edwards Daire 2006). Culturally, nobody plan to raise a second taking all re sponsibilities which goes with this role. This authority that grandparent taking fulltime responsibility of maintaining a grandchild cause to major change in the life of the grandparent (Edwards Daire 2006).Demands which come with the role of parenting for the second time leads to unplanned struggles resulting to financial, emotional, physical, social and statutory challenge not experienced the time when these grandparent were raising their own children. Most of grandparent are always in their old age, The census of 1997 indicates that 33% of grandparent caregivers are under the age of 50, 48% are between the ages of 50 and 64, and 19% are over the age of 65 (National Resources Centre for Respite and Crisis Care Services 1998 para.2). This means that engaging grandparent in raising of their grandchildren results trying to balance between struggling to manage their old age and caring for their grandchildren. Various studies have indicated that there is an increase in the case of g randparent raising their grandchildren. According to Casper and Bryson 2008, united States Bureau of the Census categorizes studies on this subject on five type grandparent maintained families i. e.both grandparents, some parents present both grandparents, no parents present grandmother only, some parents present grandmother only, no parents present and grandfather only present (Casper and Bryson 2008 para. 1). This categorization is important as it helps to analyze implication since different states leads to different implications. Statistics from U. S. Census Bureau indicates that in 1970 3. 2 percent or 2. 2 million children in United States lived under care of grandparents.Overtime, the proportion of the grandchildren maintained by grandparent has resulted to a drastic increase. 1997 census on this subject indicated that there was an increase from 3. 2 percent in 1970 to 5. 5 percent or from 2. 2 million to 3. 9 million. This represents a 76 percent increase over period of 27 y ears. According to these statistical this increase was experienced in all in the above mentioned types of the grandparent care.The most notable was 118 percent increase of grandchildren with only mothers under grandparent with grandchildren living with their fathers increased by 217 percent. This change was more notable in 1980s but this further increased in 1990 indicating the greatest increase of children maintained by grandparents. According to Hammond 2002, statistics by American Association of retired Persons on 2000 census indicates that 2. 4 million grandparents are fully in charge of maintaining and solely taking care of their grandchildren. This was a 30 percent of the increase in the in 10 years.

Barriers to Entrepreneurship Development in Tajikistan

Barriers to Entrepreneurship Development in TajikistanIntroductionThe emergence of the entrepreneurship as an essential fortune of the preservation of Tajikistan is taking place for the past 19 divisions, in spite of its certain downturn during the polished fight in the country in 1991-1997. at heart the inclined period, the legal framework for the regulation of business enterprise activities was developed and am quitments to the particular conditions of the governmental policy cerebrate to the entrepreneurship support were made.The stage of the entrepreneurship make-up required the betterment of its sectoral structure and enhancement of the scotch efficiency. It is perspicuous that the prospects of its development ar immediately related to the alleviation of particular barriers which business people currently encounter. At the aforesaid(prenominal) time the inception of frugalal growth should initiate the substantiative influence on the entrepreneurship promotion .The essay will exclusively focus on the analysis of entrepreneurship mental hospital and development in Tajikistan with the reference to SME sector including the immenseness of entrepreneurship for the socio-economic development. In addition, the essay will describe main barriers to entrepreneurship development and possible ways to alleviate the difficulties related to its promotion.The rationale for the decision to write about this specific issue is based on following particular basiss there be very few look works describing problems of entrepreneurship development in Tajikistan. Although, some scholars described these issues in the former Soviet Union countries, in most of their works Tajikistan is only slightly mentioned among the early(a) countries.The objective of this given paper is to define the entrepreneurship built in bed in Tajikistan, the importance of its development as well as to identify the difficulties for entrepreneurship development and to provide good w ord for the solution of the existing problems.In order to reach the stated objective, the following re try questions were raised. starting time of all it is all- primal(a) to understand, what are the main barriers to entrepreneurship development in Tajikistan? Secondly, what are the possible ways to promote entrepreneurship development?The theoretical and empirical grounds for the given paper are the analytical works of Tajik and foreign scholars, statistical data, as well as surveys and reports of various international institutions. Due to the analysis of both foreign and Tajik experts assessments the reader will be enabled to find the double sentiment on the described issue.Chapter OneThe role and importance of entrepreneurship in Tajikistan1.1 Tajikistan at a glance background informationIn order to explain the entrepreneurship spatial relation in Tajikistan, it is worth to describe the background information about the country.Being a landlocked country, Tajikistan is locate d far from the main Eurasian utmostways. Infrastructure is ill developed due(p) to the fact that 93% of the all territory is mountains. In fact there are a number of scientific works describing the linkages amidst the infrastructure and the country development, including development of the entrepreneurship. However, in the framework of bequest essay the impact of poor infrastructure to the entrepreneurship development will not be discussed.During 1929 1991 Tajikistan was a member of the Soviet Union. After the breakdown of the Soviet Union in 1991, the country gained independence and started the transition to the market sparing. After gaining its independence, the country was immediately face with the economic problems cause by the collapse of the centrally-planned Soviet economy such as, disruption of guaranteed markets, withdrawal of subsidies and imbalance of exchange (Middleton, 2007). Due to these facts, economical as well as political transformations of Tajikistan wer e difficult, primarily due to the holdover of various centrally planned command and control approaches to the national development (Suhir, 2003).According to Johnes, Tajikistan can be considered as the poorest of the countries of the former Soviet Union. At the opening of its independence the position of the country was undermined by a civil war which lasted from 1991 until 1997. During that time the economy suffered materially. In addition, the war has seriously disrupted the entire infrastructure of the country and contributed to the emigration of almost one million people, this number was equaled to a sixth of the hail population. After the end of the civil war, the government undertook an aggressive program of reforms. As a consequence, by the beginning of 2000, the majority of small sized enterprises had been privatized, and most of the intumescent enterprises were transformed into enounce stock companies. Moreover, almost half of all cropland belonged to private people. In addition, beingness a neighbor of Afghanistan, the country has fallen victim of the drug trade and has been directly affected by drug-related criminal infiltration (Johnes, 2002).Despite its growth, Tajik economy is not still fully recovered from the effects of the collapse of the Soviet Union and the civil war. The unwashed domestic product in 2007 was still only 72% of the 1991 level in real terms, which is visually represented in the graph 1.Chart 1 Real GDP continues to recover but has not reached the level of 1991Source Business Environment in Tajikistan as seen by Small and medium Enterprises, IFC, 20091.2 Definition and types of entrepreneurship in TajikistanThe process of society democratization and the implementation of market relations which are taking places in Tajikistan nowadays caused a variety of positive effects. Entrepreneurship which influences all economical spheres can be considered as such effect. In developed countries the role and the importance of entre preneurship are being evaluated quite high. Our country, which has chosen the pathway of market economy, is considering the issues of entrepreneurship and strengthening of its role as a matter of par nurture importance (Rahmon, 2001, own translation).According to the landed estate program of Protection and support of entrepreneurship in the Republic of Tajikistan for the years 2002-2005, entrepreneurship is described as an activity which independently carried out by the persons registered in an order established by the law this activity is direct to the earning of profit from use of proportion, sale of goods, manufacture, performance of works and rendering of services. Entrepreneurship development is one of the priority directions of financial and economic policy in the conditions of market economy and it is direct on increase in production and rendering of services as well as provision of new workplaces (Soliev, 2004). It is quite possible that the origin of such simplified de finition of entrepreneurship was to motivate as much as possible people to become entrepreneurs.Tajik scholar Juraboev described entrepreneurship as a search for new spheres of rationalization and a profitable investment of recourses, performance of new combinations in manufacture, movement to the new markets, and creation of new products. It is aimed at making a profit above the average level (Juraboev, 2003, own translation).The tendency of entrepreneurship development in Tajikistan started from the period of 1993 1994. At that time the quantity of enterprises which performed entrepreneurial activity and had a status of legal entity was equaled to 3304 enterprises for the year of 1993 and 3988 enterprises in 1994 (Statistical yearbook , 2006). The entrepreneurship neighborhood was dominated by the cooperatives, farmers, private and individual enterprises.However, the crisis in the economy caused by the severance of economic relations in the midst of the former Soviet Union coun tries which had common free market zone before, and the post-war factors with corresponding decrease of nation welfare became the reasons of reduction in the quantity of private enterprises, e excessly SMEs.Nevertheless, in later years the entrepreneurship in Tajikistan, which for the purposes of this essay is described by the SME sector, started to recover from the consequences of Soviet Union breakup The taken for granted(predicate) development of SME sector can be proved by the available data that shows that in October 2006 the come of small and medium enterprises in Tajikistan was equaled to 12167, including 7578 participating enterprises. The structure of the SME sector can be described as follows the highest amount of 38.4 % is commercial enterprises, the share of trade and catering 17.2%, construction 13.3 %, industry 12.3%. The part of other economic activities is equals to 20% (Nazarov, 2006).In addition to the information provided above it is important to identify th e SME sector in Tajikistan. In compliance with the righteousness of the Republic of Tajikistan On State Protection and Support of Entrepreneurship in the Republic of Tajikistan passed in 2005, the SME sector is composed of three typologies of businesses. The first group is individual entrepreneurs, who is involved in a business activity without forming a legal entity and operate it at their own risk. The second group is dehkah farms enterprises involved in the production and sale of agricultural products. Dehkan farmers operate as individual entrepreneurs according to the State Registration Certificate. Third group includes small and medium sized companies (Law On State Protection and Support of Entrepreneurship, 2005, own translation).Moreover, the special SMEs criteria are also being significant. As consistent with the Tax Code of Tajikistan, small enterprises are individual entrepreneurs and legal entities which perform business activity and their gross revenue (before taxes) i s not exceed 150 000 USD. The average quantity of employees should not exceed 50 for agricultural sector and 30 for other sectors. Respectively, medium enterprises are individual entrepreneurs and legal entities whose gross revenue is more than 150 000 USD but does not exceed 3.7 million USD. The average quantity of employees can vary from 50 to 200 for agricultural sector and from 30 to 100 for other sectors (Tax Code, 2009, own translation). In fact the Micro-enterprises are not delineate in the Tax Code.1.3 The importance of the entrepreneurship in the socio-economic development of the countryNowadays private enterprises are functioning almost in all fields and spheres of the economy of Tajikistan. With the presence of necessary support, the entrepreneurship plays an important role it contributes to the state budget, creates new employment and stimulates the social and economic development of the regions. Furthermore, entrepreneurs play a significant role in the social and polit ical tone of society.According to the statistics, in the year of 2007 approximately 1.7% or 19 thousand people of all population work in the private sector belonged to the SMEs. all over the last years, the quantity of employees of small and medium enterprises has increased by 14.5%, while the amount of enterprises has risen by 35%. However, the most interesting fact is that the wide-cut quantity of employees in the SME sector in 2007 was lower equate to the 1998 (Statistical Yearbook, 2008). Visually this information is presented in the Chart 2.Chart 2 Dynamics of the quantity of employees in SMEs (in thousands)Source Tajikistan 15 Years of Independence. Statistical yearbook, Dushanbe, 2006It can be assumed that the comparatively low quantity of employees in the SME sector is resulted from the tax burden of the employers. In fact, the amount of social tax which the employers have to pay equals to 25% out of the total payroll fund. Moreover, in contrast to the other countries, the existing taxation remains in Tajikistan does not have the tax remissions in connection with the increase of the quantity of workers (Nazarov, 2006).Furthermore, the role of entrepreneurship in the market economy is very significant in terms of solving a number of socio-economic problems as well as in the poverty alleviation. Small and medium enterprises create the most favorable opportunities for the entrepreneurship oddly at its initial stage. The presence of the substantial amount of SMEs on the market promotes the competition. And by promoting the competition, small and medium enterprises stimulate the increase of production efficiency as well as production growth which in its turn may cause the real growth of the economy.As a short summary of the given section about the importance of entrepreneurship in general and SMEs in particular, it can be stated that it is both the aim and the tool for the development of market economy. The dual role of entrepreneurship is confirmed by the analysis of the functions of SMEs which were classified into two groups. These groups are objective functions and tool functions. The objective functions promote the development of small and medium entrepreneurship and being considered as one of the governmental tasks. These functions include the impact on the unemployment reduction, the acceleration of the technological progress by means of innovations and ensuring the social and political stability in the society. According to the tool functions, small and medium entrepreneurship is being used in order to limit the tendencies of monopolized economy, to support formation of a middle class and to come across the particular market niches which are not attractive for the large enterprises (Chapek, 2004. own translation).1.4 Characteristics of entrepreneurship development in TajikistanThe establishment of entrepreneurship in Tajikistan started at the time when the legislative foundations were absent. The Law On entrepreneurshi p activity was passed only in December 1991 and up to day it has completely changed. This law had a lot of disadvantages which negatively affected the process of entrepreneurship establishment in the country. Other economic laws which could support and secure the entrepreneurial activity in Tajikistan were passed later. For instance, The law on property (1996), The law on privatization of state property (1997) as well as laws related to taxation, customs and currency circulation (Nazarov, 2006).The formation of the entrepreneurship took place at the period of destabilization of finances and significant level of unemployment, which were caused by the collapse of the centralized control musical arrangement. Another unique feature of entrepreneurship formation and development in Tajikistan is the limitation of strategic behavior. There are two reasons explaining it. First of all, during the first years of the market economy establishment, the formation of entrepreneurship was influenc ed by the substantial advantages of short-term transactions in the sphere of circulation and in the financial market. This circumstance created an charm attitude, stereotypes of thinking and behaving. Secondly, there is a significant gap between the profitability of long-term investments in manufacture and short-term financial transactions. The conditions for the implementation of long-term investments projects in the production sphere are such that invested funds will be paid off only in 3-5 years however, in conditions of the transition economy this process may take even longer. Therefore such areas of entrepreneurship as trade and catering remain the most attractive for the entrepreneurs (Soliev, 2004).According to the statistics, at the beginning of 2008 there were 55,8 thousands of enterprises registered in Tajikistan in fact, 60% of them are private enterprises including both SMEs and large enterprises (Statistical Yearbook, 2008). There is a trend toward positive increase of total amount of enterprises in general as well as private enterprises in particular, as it is demonstrated in the Chart 3.Chart 3 Dynamics of total amount of enterprises, including private enterprises (in thousands)Source Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Tajikistan, Dushanbe, 2008The dynamic development of SME sector is caused by several specific advantages of the latter. According to the Kamarov, the most important fact is that SMEs are able to get their own market share, although they have much less funds for implementation of important strategic researches compare to large enterprises. In addition, small and medium businesses are quite flexible and mobile, which allow them to react fast for the market demand as well as to alter for the changing conditions. Small entrepreneurship can be characterized as an originative type of economic behavior which at the same time being described as special entrepreneurial spirit and creative action (Kamarov, 2009).Another important fac t is that on every 1000 of economically active population in Tajikistan there is in average only one SME in contrast, in Russia there are 3 enterprises on every 1000 of economically active population (Davgyalo, 2007).Chapter TwoBarriers to entrepreneurship development2.1 General overview of difficulties related to the entrepreneurship development in TajikistanAs it is demonstrated by the sphere experience, the more opportunities for the widening of the activity by the entrepreneurs, the higher growth rate can be seen for the country. Under the given circumstances, the creation of the favorable conditions for the entrepreneurship development is a crucial factor.The entrepreneurship of Tajikistan faces particular barriers, among the others they are instability and imperfection of the legislative system related to entrepreneurship, high level of taxes, complexity of tax collection, insufficiency of the start-up capital and current capital, difficulties with the access to bank loans, c orruption, shortage of the dependant staff, difficulties with the rent of the production space as and others. In most cases there is no proper social and personal security for owners and employees of the private enterprises (Soliev, 2004).The current institutional mechanism of entrepreneurship promotion demonstrates that although the entrepreneur is secured by the laws and governmental instruments, the level of entrepreneurship development is not correspond to the high taxation level and crediting rates. (Asrorov et al., 2004). Therefore the entrepreneurs are playing in the environment of legal and economical limitation.The barriers faced by entrepreneurs impede the inflow of billions of dollars of potential profit for the country each year and threaten to jump the political and economic transition. These losses take place due to the ill-designed, complicated laws and regulations that unnecessarily raise the cost of doing business in the formal sector. As a result of high costs of doing business, entrepreneurs are using in their operations limited funds in order to survive with presence of low income and consequently they are losing the economic potential. In addition, the costly business regulations encourage potential investors to invest in the more favorable business environments and therefore country faces the deprivation of the needed investments (Suhir, 2003).The experience of entrepreneurship establishment and development in Tajikistan demonstrates that the majority of business owners are not aimed at the further growth. Their main goal is to ensure the immutable existence, to preserve their capital and market position (Urdashev, 2005). The given situation can be explained by two reasons. First of all, there is no effective system for the stimulation of entrepreneurial activity. Secondly, entrepreneurs are experiencing the certain pressure from the tax, custom and law-enforcement authorities.2.2 of import barriers faced by entrepreneurship in Taji kistanIn this section of the paper the main barriers to the entrepreneurship development will be described in details. These barriers are difficulties related to licensing, access to finance, imperfection of taxation system, poor infrastructure, corruption and overlook of qualified association by entrepreneurs.LicensingIFC defined license as a special permit issued by a state body authorizing a business to carry out a certain activity under specific terms and conditions. When a business is subject to licensing requirements, it must obtain the specific license before starting its activities. therefore licensing happens after business registration, but before a comp some(prenominal) is allowed to start operations in the activity to be licensed (IFC, 2009).The barriers related to the licensing can be classified as the continuation of the Soviet system of permissions whereby one must obtain approval from the authorities in order to perform even the smallest tasks. The present permis sive entrepreneurial climate which characterized by abundant regulation, continues to inflict losses on entrepreneurial activity in all sectors of the economy (Suhir, 2003).According to the world practice, the low-risk activities and those which do not involve any limited resources should not be subject to licensing. In fact, Tajikistan licenses some activities that are not licensed in more other countries for instance, real estate valuation and tourism (IFC, 2009). The Chart 4 illustrates that in spite of the recent reforms, the number of activities licensed in Tajikistan is still relatively high compare to some other countries.Chart 4 Number of economic activities subject to licensing in selected countriesSource Business Environment in Tajikistan as seen by Small and Medium Enterprises, IFC, 2009For instance, IFC reports that eight of the 65 licensed economic activities are related to the transport. However, the implementing regulations of the Licensing Laws divide these eight ec onomic activities into 22 sub-activities, each of that in its turn requires a separate license.In addition, the period of validity of licenses as well as their cost still remains a problem. The law foresees that the minimal period of validity for the license is 3 years however, on practice the licenses are being issued for the period which in average is less than one year (IFC, 2009). The short periods of licenses validity impede the investments and long-term development as well as create the grounds for the extortion by the officials.Access to financeOne of the main conditions of the entrepreneurship development is the existence of proper financial infrastructure. In general the Tajik financial system was growing rapidly over the past years, although it still remains small. novel data shows, that there are twelve commercial banks (including one state-owned bank), seven credit societies, one non-bank financial institution and eighty eight microfinance institutions operating in Taj ikistan (IFC, 2009).The banking systems in rally Asia in general and in Tajikistan in particular can be considered as insufficient since they impose impossible demands on entrepreneurs due to the unreasonable time-frames and terms of credit repayments, it is difficult to provide collateral and to find a guarantor for securing a loan (Suhir, 2003). Thus in order to get a loan from some commercial banks the entrepreneur should provide the collateral which values up to 3 times more compare to the actual amount of requested loan. The survey performed by the IFC demonstrates that more than half of rejected loan applications in 2007 were due to the insufficient loan collateral (IFC, 2009). In addition, the process to formalisation and registration of the collateral is complicated and expensive at the present time.Besides that, the loans themselves became not very attractive because of the interest rate. Additional factor of distrust to the banking area is the lack of reliable mechanism f or the protection of the borrowers interests. In this respect the majority of entrepreneurs actually not able to use services of commercial banks.The Chart 5 demonstrates what kind of problems entrepreneurs encounter in terms of access to the finance. And it is quite clear that the most important issue is high interest rates.Chart 5 Main obstacles as identified by the potential borrowers (in %)Source Business Environment in Tajikistan as seen by Small and Medium Enterprises, IFC, 2009In general, in compliance with the Doing business report, Tajikistan is ranked as 167th overall in terms of easiness to getting credit ( domain Bank, 2010). And firms consistently rate access to credit as among the superlative barriers to their operation and growth.Taxation systemThe modern tendency for the entrepreneurship development can be described as the one with the lack of unity of economic aims between entrepreneurship and government. On the one hand, the governmental regulations related to the entrepreneurial activity are grounded on the creation of the favorable conditions for the entrepreneurship development however, on the other hand, they are directed on provision the maximum tax revenues to the state budget. At present there are 18 different taxes in Tajikistan. According to the statistics, forty-eight percentage of countrys tax revenues in 2008 came from the value-added tax. Tax code states that the value-added tax is equal to 18%, income tax 30% and social tax 25% (Tax Code, 2009). Such level of taxation does not correspond with the taxation systems used in developed countries. As a rule, developed countries increase tax rates in order to take a hop the overproduction (Davgyalo, 2007). In fact there is no problem of overproduction in Tajikistan.On the whole the tax regime in Tajikistan is characterized by high complexity and instability. The Tajik Tax Code, which went into effect in 2004, has been amended 9 times since that time. Unfortunately given amendments nevery caused the simplification of tax obligations nor improved tax administration. The World Bank Groups Doing Business 2009 report demonstrates evidence that taxes impose a heavy burden on business taxpayers in the country. This report ranks Tajikistan as 159th out of 181 countries in terms of ease of complying with the tax obligations (World Bank, 2009).Besides, the procedure of preparation the tax forms is complicated, the average Dehkan farmer or individual entrepreneur has spent almost 5 working days on the filing and on payment of taxes in 2007. While the average SME spent more than three weeks on this process. Moreover, there is a lack of effective communication infrastructure for the acceptance of the tax reports by mail. Although the Tax Code states that it is possible for taxpayers to submit their tax declarations in three ways by certified mail, in person, or electronically in practice, entrepreneurs submit tax reports in person. In addition, the survey performed by IF C shows that that submission of tax declarations involves a significant period of time spent waiting in lines at the tax office in order to get the appropriate sig spirits (IFC, 2009).CorruptionThe harmful nature of corruption between government and business enterprises is a classic conflict of the political economy, which goes back to Adam Smiths The Wealth of Nations. In the socialist period, bribery was widely practiced as a sort of necessary evil among citizens in Soviet Union Countries. It operated as a special social mechanism used to overcome obstacles established by bureaucratic systems as well as chronic shortages of supply which could affect business operations and everyday activities. In contrast, in the transition period, the corruption between entrepreneurs and bureaucrats started to take place more for self-interest rather than as a socially necessary evil like it was in Soviet Union time (Ichiro Iwasaki, 2007).Interesting explanation of the existence of corruption wa s provided by Clark and Naito in their article. According to them, corruption is endemic in all countries of Central Asia. However, the additional factor which contributes to the level of corruption results from the existing barriers with respect to the cooperation between various Ministries. In fact, nowadays the level of cooperation is relatively small and as a consequence there is a shortage of transparency in the system. The lack of transparency in its turn allows corruption to flourish as there are no checks and bounds on the system (Clark, Naito, 1998).The number of surveys performed by the World Bank confirms the fact that corruption remains a main constraint for entrepreneurship in Tajikistan. This demonstrated by the high frequency of inner gifts requested from enterprises by the government officials, so called Graft Index. The Graft Index shows the proportion of instances in which enterprises were either requested or expected to pay an informal payment for licenses, permi ts or public services (IFC, 2009). Visually the situation with corruption in Tajikistan in semblance with some other countries of Eastern Europe and Central Asia is presented at the Chart 6.Chart 6 Tajikistan has the highest graft index in Europe and Central Asia (ECA)ECA regional AverageSource Business Environment in Tajikistan as seen by Small and Medium Enterprises, IFC, 2009However, the survey performed by IFC in 2007 demonstrates that the situation related to the informal payments in Tajikistan has improved over the last years. According to the survey responses, entrepreneurs were asked for or expected to pay bribes or give informal gifts in 2007 fewer compare to previous years. Although this is a positive development, it is too early to conclude that corruption is no longer a problem. Data demonstrate that 21% of enterprises have defined the informal payments as a main obstacle for their business activity. In fact, only high tax rates were defined as a major obstacle more oft en than corruption (IFC, 2009).Lack of the sufficient knowledge by entrepreneursJohnes stated that the main resource which is available to Tajikistan is its people. Generally the level of breeding in the country is high, with a literacy rate about 98% (Johnes, 2002). However, one of the obstacles which may be additionally observed in Tajikistan nowadays is the lack of the sufficient knowledge in the area of entrepreneurship.This fact can be explained by taking a look at the history. In the Soviet era entrepreneurship was considered as a speculation. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia defines speculation as a process of buying up the goods on closed markets and resale those goods on open and deficiency markets in conditions of constraining the freedom of trade, for example, during the war (Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 1978, own translation). This activity was punishable either by high fines or imprisonment and due to this reason was considered as a part of the shadow economy. Based on the above mentioned information, the following conclusion can be drawn the entrepreneurship as an activity as well as entrepreneurs are still being considered as unacceptable or even discreditable activity by the people of older generation.It is obvious that problems related to managerial issues are really crucial for the private entrepreneur due to the reason that the manager should be a specialist with a kind knowledge in the area of management, finance, accounting and marketing. In fact, nowadays the universities of the country are not preparing such versatile managers for the private sector (Urdashev, 2005).The current situation in Tajikistan is such that the majority of entrepreneurs have problems due to the lack of proper knowledge. Thus according to the IFC survey, more than one-third of individual entrepreneurs did not keep any financial or tax records in 2007 (IFC, 2009), despite the existing requirements. The responses presented in the Chart 7 demonstrate the reasons for th e absence of necessary records. It is clear that the lack of knowledge is a very significant issue in this respect.Chart 7 Reasons f

La Crisis Petrolera

La Crisis PetroleraOBJETIVOS1. Analizar el impacto mundial que genera a nivel e studymico y en los merca body politic de capital la crisis gas pedalera.2. Identificar los f promoteres determinantes de la crisis polticos, e victimisemicos.3. Presentar informacin cronolgica del desarrollo de la crisis.4. Analizar los diferentes fenmenos e fiddlemicos presentados en esta crisis haciendo nfasis en la estanflacin presentada en este periodo.INTRODUCCINEn la dcada de los 70 se dio lugar a dos crisis petroleras, la primera de ellas en el ao de 1973 y la segunda en el ao de 1979, dichas crisis fueron generadas por los diversos intereses y objetivos que se manejaban entre los pases miembros de la OPEP (Organizacin de pases Exportadores de Petrking of beasts), las compaas petroleras ms importantes del mundo y los principales pases compradores como los Estados Unidos, durante los periodos de crisis la fluctuacin fue incontrolable, caracterizada por el incremento constante de los precios del bar ril y alimentada por los intereses econmicos de los reinos rabes y la acumulacin de excedentes por parte de las compaas petroleras, hechos que impactaron fuertemente a la economa, afectando a los pases importadores del crudo y a los consumidores de los bienes finales en los cuales es necesaria la implementacin del mismo. Dentro del marco de la crisis tambin juega un papel muy importante el aspecto poltico principalmente el entre Estados Unidos y los pases del golfo Prsico con la mayor intervencin de Arabia Saud, por ser el principal productor de petr social lion del mundo, dicho papel fue determinante en el periodo de crisis debido a que fue el actor que gui las decisiones de la OPEP, como en el caso de la guerra rabe-israel , cuando El gobierno saud toma la decisin de iniciar un embargo en la produccin, reduciendo un porcentaje importante de la produccin y afectando las economas por los conflictos polticos. Las consecuencias de las crisis solamente fueron negativas check bit los co nsumidores por el alza en los precios, pero fueron benficas paritytrooper los productores y las grandes compaas petroleras debido a la acumulacin de excedentes lograda durante el periodo la cual se puede ver reflejada en la balanza de pagos de los pases rabes. Dichos acontecimientos mostraron que la elasticidad de la demanda en aquel periodo fue alta, los productores rabes le mostraron al mundo el poder sobre este mercado y los consumidores entendieron la importancia de la energa.1. ANTECEDENTES* En 1956 el gelogo y director de investigaciones de call down, inici un detallado estudio sobre los ritmos del descubrimiento de yacimientos petrolferos en Amrica del Norte, su trabajo demuestra matemticamente que la explotacin de todo yacimiento sigue una curva en forma de campana que toma su tiempo para fluir, adems concluyo que la produccin americana alcanzara su punto culminante en el ao de 1970 y que caera rpidamente durante los siguientes aos ocasionando un aumento de la dependencia del exterior, tambin afirm que era inevitable una disminucin de la produccin a pesar de las mejoras en los mtodos de perforacin y las nuevas tcnicas de extraccin, pero sus teoras no tuvieron aceptacin ante el gobierno de Estados Unidos, sin embargo sus postulados se cumplieron.* En 1967 el petrleo tops(predicate)o al carbn y se impuso como primera fuente de anergia alrededor del mundo.* Antes de los aos 70 no se mostraban intereses relevantes sobre los recursos petroleros de Arabia Saud, pero despus de 1970 la produccin Norteamericana inici su cada a pique y el petrleo Saud se convierte indispensable.* En 1970 la produccin petrolera Saud representaba el 13 % de las explotaciones mundiales, y en 1973 pas al 21 %* El petrleo representaba el 95% de los recursos del reino rabe, de los cuales el 20% reverta en la familia real.* A mediados de los aos 70 el petrleo representaba ms de la mitad de las necesidades econmicas globales de la humanidad representadas en un 54%, la cantidad de co nsumido pas de 300 millones de toneladas en 1960 a ms de 500 millones en 1975, aumentado en un 160%.* En 1971 se formo una comisin encabezada por Richard Nixon y presidida por el general G. A. Lincoln con el fin de examinar la poltica energtica norteamericana con el trabajo de varios consultores, las conclusiones fueron1. Resaltar la necesidad de Estados Unidos de provocar una subida el precio del petrleo importado para lograr estabilizar el precio interno a un nivel elevado e incentivar las inversiones necesarias para el desarrollo de las fuentes nacionales de energa.2. La comisin tambin recomienda el saneamiento de las relaciones con los pases exportadores para evitar alteraciones en las importaciones americanas.* El 14 de Febrero de 1971 en Tehern (Irn), los representantes de la compaas petroleras firmaron un acuerdo con la OPEP, debido a que su situacin solo tena dos opciones ejecutar o ser ejecutados, por lo tanto firmaron un acuerdo de Capitulacin el cual marco el fin del prin cipio del (Fifty-Fifty) mitad- mitad, desde ese momento los pases productores poseen el 55% y obtienen un suplemento de 0.30 dlares por barril sobre el precio establecido, sin embargo alcanzo el 0.50 dlares en el ao 1975.* En Julio de 1972 el reino rabe alcanz a producir 5.4 millones de barriles diarios y llega a 8.4 millones en 1973* Para 1973 la industria petrolera necesitaba grandes sumas de capital debido a que afrontaban dificultades financieras, algunas compaas Exxon, Shell, BP, PHILIPPS PETROLEUM ocultaban que estaban al borde la quiebra, debido a que haban invertido en proyectos cuyo presupuesto inicial sobrepas todas sus estimaciones, tales como la construccin de oleoductos, explotacin de zonas fuera de las costas, gigantescos campos petrolferos y nuevas tecnologas para perforaciones, por lo tanto la crisis desatada por los pases de la OPEP fue la salvacin a su crisis econmica.2. FACTORES DETERMINANTES DE LA CRISISEn 1964 el prncipe Feisal de Arabia Saud, sac del poder a su hermano Saoud. En ese entonces el presidente de Egipto Nasser, era considerado como un puente que permita a Rusia y su comunismo extender su influencia en la regin, por lo que el monarca Saud deba de alguna forma, depender de la proteccin Estadounidense, sin embargo pidi que los servicios secretos de Estados Unidos no operaran mas dentro de su reino sin tener en cuenta que los americanos no necesitaban de ello, la monarqua conservadora de este pas, la dinasta de los Seoud, se apoyaba en una Islam radical el Wahhabismo, religin donde el Corn y la tradicin (Hadith) deben ser interpretados literalmente, Faysal promueve la consolidacin del Wahhabismo imponiendo sus reglas totalitarias, hecho que favoreca a Estados Unidos y a la CIA debido a que el Wahhabismo diriga y vigilaba a la poblacin, asegurando de cierta manera la estabilidad del pas y junto con ella la estable produccin de petrleo.Estados Unidos trat de convencer de bajar los precios a los pases de la OPEP, todo inici en 1971 c on el acuerdo de Tehern, donde se dieron negociaciones un poco precipitadas entre los representantes de la OPEP y los majors cuyo resultado fue un acuerdo que incluye un alza de 35 cntimos por barril ms un aumento anual de 5 cntimos por barril y otro del 2.5% al ao para compensar la inflacin, dicho acuerdo inicialmente se estipulo que deba estar vigente hasta el ao de 1975, sin embargo 15 meses despus de su inicio, Estados Unidos empez una nueva subida de precios de 1976 a 1980, ocasionado por el nombramiento de James Akins como embajador en Arabia Saud, quien fue el director de la administracin de carburantes y de energa en el departamento de Estado y consejero para el petrleo del presidente Nixon, Akins fue el encargado de preparar el informe de la segunda comisin formada para revisar la poltica petrolfera Estadounidense, informe en el cual recomend la subida de precios.. En Junio de 1972 se reuni el Congreso Arabe del Petrleo de las Naciones con motivo de la celebracin de la naci onalizacin de la Irak Petroleum Company, que controlaba desde haca 50 aos la explotacin del petrleo en Irak y Siria, en dicho congreso Akins dio un discurso a los asistentes en el cual afirm que algunos pases de la OPEP estimaban aumentar el precio del barril hasta que llegara a 5 dlares, cuando en realizada la OPEP ni siquiera haba discutido sobre la variacin de los precios del petrleo y teniendo en cuenta que en el acuerdo del Tern el preci del barril aumento casi en un 50% pasando de 1.80 a 2.60 dlares, el cual fue el primer aumento desde la creacin de la OPEP, por lo tanto este discurs sorprendi a los asistentes y significo una leccin de radicalismo poltico por parte de su adversario.Por otra parte, en 1973 Nixon pone a las fuerzas Estadounidenses en estado de alerta nuclear por primera vez despus de la segunda guerra mundial como respuesta a la aparicin de la flota rusa en el mar mediterrneo la cual se consideraba como una amenaza para Arabia Saud, el pas que le brindaba la may or cantidad de petrleo a su primer aliado Estados Unidos, por lo tanto los pases rabes sintieron apoyo de los Norteamericanos pero a cambio de aumentar la produccin para cubrir la demanda americana, punto que favoreci a occidente.En 1973 en vsperas de la crisis petrolera, Arabia Saud tena ms del 25 % de las reservas mundiales de petrleo, el 90% de la produccin Saud provena de 6 enormes yacimientos concentrados en una pequea zona del reino rabe, destacando el mayor yacimiento de petrleo del mundo descubierto en 1948 llamado Ghawar contando con aproximadamente el 17% de todas las reservas de petrleo accesibles en el mundo. A principio de los aos 70 las cuatro compaas que formaban ARAMCO Exxon, Texaco, Mobil y Chevron, fijaban el precio del petrleo producido en Arabia Saud las cuales pagaban una tasa baja al reino por cada barril vendido, pero a principios del ao 1973 se enfrentaron a mltiples tensiones, teman que sus empresas fueran nacionalizadas, por lo tanto decidieron aumentar el nivel de produccin aprovechando el alza de precios de los barriles, con el fin de poder extraer el mximo petrleo antes de que los dirigentes Saudes tomaran el control de los yacimientos, situacin que finalmente se dio en 1976 cuando el consorcio se nacionaliz en cerca de un 60%.3. DESARROLLO DE LA CRISISLa primera crisis petrolera se presento en el ao de 1973, el 14 de Octubre inicia con las negociones entre los pases miembros de la OPEP Organizacin de pases Exportadores de Petrleo y las compaas petroleras. El 16 de Octubre, en la ciudad de capital of capital of Kuwait, seis estados del golfo Arabia Saud, Irn, Irak, Abu Dhabi, Qatar y Kuwait) deciden biasedmente aumentar el precio del petrleo pasando de 2 a 3.65 dlares el barril. En aquellos das se estaba desencadenado la cuarta guerra rabe-israel, mediante combates, por lo tanto los ministros del petrleo de los pases rabes miembros de la OPEP establecieron un embargo y optaron por reducir la produccin en un 5%, mediante la elabora cin de un comunicado en el cual se precisaba que dicho porcentaje seria aplicado todos los meses a partir de las cantidades del mes anterior, hasta la evacuacin total de los israelitas del territorio rabe ocupados desde Junio de 1967 y el reconocimiento de los derechos legtimos del pueblo palestino. La subida del precio de forma unilateral fue el resultado de largas y complejas negociaciones entre los pases productores y las grandes compaas petroleras, mientras que el embargo fue decretado segn lo manifest el secretario general de la OPEP solamente para alertar a la opinin pblica de las naciones occidentales sobre el problema de Israel,1 lo que podra mostrar que nada tena que ver un hecho con el otro aparentemente, pero era el mejor medio para llevar los precios a niveles mucho ms elevados. Esta crisis tambin genero una gran solidaridad entre los pases rabes como no lo haban conseguido lderes como Gamal Abdel Nasser, en el momento de la nacionalizacin del canal del Suez.El 16 de oct ubre se convoca una reunin urgente en Kuwait de la OPAEP (grupo de los pases rabes en el seno de la OPEP), por el rey Feisal, esto con el fin de hacer al presidente Sadat, junto con el emeer de Kuwait, en esta reunin todos los pases rabes exportadores se comprometieron a disminuir la produccin partiendo del mes vigente en un mnimo de 5% por cada mes siguiente hasta que se complete la retirada de Israel de todo los territorios rabes ocupados en junio 1967 y hasta que los derechos legales del pueblo de palestina se hayan restablecido.2Arabia Saud decide no hacer una reduccin en la produccin no solo en un 5 sino en un 10%. Siguiendo esta iniciativa varios pases tambin inician a hacer cortes en el mismo porcentaje, y en la mayora se prohbe la exportacin a Estados Unidos y algunos de ellos tambin a Holanda. Estos cortes junto a los ocasionados por el conflicto que se vena cursando en ese momento redujeron en un 15% los suministros de petrleo a Occidente en un tiempo de dos semanas. A in icios de noviembre en otra reunin en el mismo lugar se decidi un reduccin del 25 por ciento generales respecto del nivel anterior de la guerra, esto hizo que todos los pases consumidores tomaran medidas urgentes, prepararse para una escasez.Adicionalmente a esto fue la decisin del incremento en el precio en una gran magnitud sin algo nunca antes visto, el 70 % o ms.3EL PRIMER IMPACTO DE LA CRISIS PETROLERA(Precios de referencia de precios por barril )Tipo de crudo1 de octubre16 de octubre% incrementoArabia ligero 34 3.0115.11970Irn ligero 342.9955.09170Iraq, Bastah 352.9975.06170Kuwait 312.8844.90370Abu, Dhabi, Murban393.0846.04596Libia 404.6048.92594Frente a estas decisiones la reaccin que se esperaba de los pases consumidores era un respuesta agresiva o de ataque, pero por el contrario fue nula, pues en este momento la economa de ellos estaba en auge y particularmente desde la devaluacin de facto del dlar en diciembre de 1971, con crecimientos de la produccin industrial del 6,3 po r ciento en 1972 y hasta junio de 1973, llevando a los occidentales a el punto mximo de su capacidad productiva, este xito o prosperidad tambin se vea o se extenda a los pases menos desarrollados, al reforzar sus mercados en exportaciones en volumen y en valor.Al no recibir respuesta los pases rabes decidieron dar un nuevo golpe, duplicando los ya elevados precios en enero de 1974, adicionalmente a esto no cumplieron lo pacto de reducir la produccin de 75% a un 70% lo que hicieron fue aumentarla en un 85%.Arabia saudita un poco mas consiente del efecto devastador que ejerceran sobre las economas de los pases industriales, trato sin xito de limitar el alza a un 50%. El aumento final de un 130 % fue una propuesta final del el Irn y Arabia Saud.El SEGUNDO IMPACTO DE LA CRISIS PETROLERA(Precios de referencia de precios por barril )Tipo de crudo16 de octubre1 de enero% incrementoArabia ligero 34 5.11911.651128Iran ligero 345.09111.875133Iraq, Bastah 355.06111.671131Kuwait 314.90311.54513 5Abu, Dhabi, Murban396.04512.636109Libia 408.92513.76554Con este nuevo incremento los precios de multiplicaron prcticamente por cuatro o por ocho si se comparan con los precios existentes en el 70, esto comparado con el resto de las materias primas y los bienes manufacturados que se multiplicaron por menos de 2% en el mismo periodo de tiempo.El sistema de fijacin de precios mediante negociacin quedo sustituido por la decisin unilateral de los pases exportadores, a partir de 1974 se realizaron mas incrementos pero ms moderados que los de octubre y noviembre hasta la siguiente gran crisis en 1979.LA PRIMERA CRISIS DEL PETRLEOFuente Fondo Monetario Internacional4. IMPACTO SOBRE LOS PAISES EXPORTADORES Y LAS GRANDES COMPAIAS.Los grandes beneficiados con la crisis petrolera fueron los pases exportadores de petrleo, tanto en trminos monetarios como en trminos de participacin y control de sus reservas, seguidos por las grandes compaas petroleras.Los excedentes de las balanzas posteriores a 1974 por cuenta corriente de los pases de la OPEP ascendieron a 68.000 millones de dlares, y promediaron los 35.000 millones de dlares anuales en el periodo de 74/78, la OPEP obtuvo un excedente conjunto de unos 10.000 millones de dlares lo que equivala entonces a la mitad del total mundial de las reservas monetarias oficiales. Estos excedentes no se repartieron en forma homognea y las diferencias entre los pases fueron enormes algunos pases se volvieron inmensamente ricos de la noche a la maana mientras que otros solo obtuvieron un efecto moderadamente favorable. Por esto la renta per cpita ascenda en 1978 a 15.000 dlares en Kuwait por encima de cualquier pas industrial, mientras que indonesia otro pas de la OPEP con 300 dlares de renta per cpita comparado con otro pas como la India la diferencia no era mnima que no era un pas productor de petrleo.Otros pases como el Irn estaban en camino de entrar en la era de la industrializacin, pero esto traera consecuencias para el rgimen del Shah y para el propio pueblo iran, Nigeria segua el mismo camino que Irn, pero en forma ms gradual, estas diferencias se mantenido despus de la crisis petrolera, Arabia Saudita por ejemplo, con 8n millones de habitantes , posee el 38,5 por ciento de las reservas de la OPEP, Ecuador con una poblacin de 9 millones tiene solo el 0,3 por ciento, por esto las rentas y las capacidades de absorcin de los mercados individuales discussion diferentes, la perspectivas que par la industrializacin ofrecen las rentas petroleras son igualmente muy distintas.Las diferencias se hicieron patentes en los aos siguientes a la crisis, como consecuencias de la reduccin de ventas y el fuerte incremento en las importaciones, lo que trajo como resultado un deterioro de la posicin exterior de algunos pases exportadores mientras que otros continuaban con fuertes supervits, Arabia Saud por ejemplo mantuvo durante todo el periodo un fuerte excedente por cuenta corriente, mientras la balanza por cuenta corrient e de Argelia para a ser deficitaria a partir de 1975. En 1978 Nigeria y Venezuela presentaron dficits tambin importantes aunque en general el supervit de la OPEP alcanzo la cifra de 177.700 millones en este periodo.Evolucin de las balanzas de pagos a nivel mundial(Balanzas por cuenta corriente incluyendo incluyendo transferencias oficiales)(miles de millones de dlares)1973197419751976197719781974 a 1978Pases industrializados17,7-13917,8-2,2-4,930,527,3Siete pases mayores12,7-4,922,17,57,633,966,2Otros pases industriales5-8,9-4,3-9,7-12,6-3,5-39,0Pases en vas de desarrolloPases exportadores de petrleo6.768,335,440,330,82,9177,7Pases no exportadores de petrleo-11,6-37,0-46,5-32,0-28,3-39,2-183,0Por reasfrica-2,1-3,5-6,9-6,1-6,6-9,0-32,1Asia-2,4-9,6-8,9-2,6-0,6-6,8-28,5Europa0,3-4,3-4,7-4,1-7,6-5,2-25,9Oriente Medio-2,6-4,5-7,0-5,4-5,2-6,528,6Amrica del sur-4,7-13,5-16,4-11,9-8,7-13,2-63,7TOTAL12,817,46,76,1-2,4-5,822,0Fuentes Fondo Monetario Internacional y OCDEEl fuerte incremento de las reservas monetarias de la OPEP reflejara la marcada preferencia de estos pases por formas liquidas de inversin de sus fondos excedentarios, por esto en 1974 los dos tercios de los fondos disponibles para inversiones fueron depositados en bancos o invertidos en bonos del tesoro, fundamentalmente en los pases industrializados, aun que en los aos siguientes se redujeron los porcentajes a pesar de algunas inversiones como la del Irn en Krupp, de Kuwait en Daimlet- Benz y el de Libia en Fiat. El manejo fundamental de los dlares procedentes del petrleo (petrodlares), correspondi principalmente a la banca internacional, con bastante eficacia quien tambin ayudo a financiar a veces con bastantes riesgos, pero tambin con sustanciales beneficios los dficits de las balanzas por cuenta corriente de gran nmero de pases. El desglose por estados productores paso de 14.400 millones de dlares en 1972 a 119.200 millones en 1978 con incremento en la percepcin media por barril en ms de seis veces.L as rentas de petrleo de los principales pases exportadores(miles de millones de dlares)1972197419761978Arabia Saudita3,122,633,535,8Irn2,417,522,020,5Irak0,65,78,59,8Venezuela1,98,78,05,6Nigeria1,28,98,58,2Libia1,66,07,58,6Kuwait1,77,08,59,2Qatar0,31,62,02,0E.A.U0,55,57,08,0Argelia0,73,74,55,0Otro0,43,36,16,5Total OPEP14,490,5116,1119,2Ingresos medios por barril ($)1,98,411,111,8Fuente El petrleo y la crisis mundialOtra consecuencia que para los pases exportadores tuvo la crisis petrolera, fue la del cambio de propiedad del crudo extrado en los mismos. Aos antes de la crisis el petrleo era propiedad ms o menos exclusiva de las compaas que lo haban encontrado y principalmente de las siete grandes compaas internacionales, la fuerza de estas se basaba en su acceso a grandes cantidades de crudo a precio de coste del que podan disponer al coste de su produccin ms las regalas (ms o menos el 12,5 por ciento de los precios de referencia) y la fiscalidad( normalmente el 55 por ciento de los beneficios tericos basados en los precios de referencia)A principios de 1974 Kuwait concreto un acuerdo con las compaas que operaban en su territorio, Gulf y BP, por el que el 60% del crudo pasaba a ser propiedad de Kuwait, acuerdo que se hizo extensivo rpidamente a otros pases, en los siguientes cuatros aos siguientes el proceso quedo completado con la nacionalizacin de las concesiones por los pases productores.Para las grandes corporaciones el resultado de la cuarta guerra rabe- Israel fue un gran beneficio econmico al igual que para los Estado Unidos lo fue en lo poltico( y ms tarde en lo econmico consecuencias de los gigantescos beneficios acumulados por sus sociedades petroleras y por su gran banca a la que haban de afluir una gran parte de los excedentes monetarios acumulados por los pases productores de petrleo) , las cifras en el cuarto trimestre del 1973 comparadas con las de los ltimos trimestres de los dos aos anteriores eran noblemente altas, estos beneficios se prologa ron hasta los aos 80 y aun mas doblemente con la segunda crisis petrolera de 1979, la guerra hizo surgir un nuevo y poderoso cartel de la OPEP y como mencionbamos hizo perder a las compaas la propiedad directa de crudo en la mayor parte de los pases, esta estrategia fue aprovechada a fondo, proporcionando a estas grandes sociedades un incremento de su podero econmico en proporciones que no hubieran podido soar.Beneficios comparados de las grandes sociedades petrolerasUnidad millones de dlares197119721973Exxon357,0353,0638,0royal stag Dutch Shell209,3110,5413,7Texaco218,2207,4307,4Mobil Oil134,1140,9231,2Standard Oil de California135,0150,5276,0Gulf Oil141,0110,0210,0British Petroleum87,035,0135,0Evolucin de los beneficios declarados por las grandes compaas 1972-1978Unidad millones de dlares1972197419761978Exxon1.5322.1422.6412.763Mobil5741.0479431.126Standard Oil de California5479708801.106Royal Dutch Shell2821.1611.3001.086Texaco8891.586870852Gulf Oil1971.065816791British Petroleum 71487180444Fuentes El petrleo y la crisis mundial5. EL IMPACTO SOBRE LOS PASES CONSUMIDORESEl tema de los pases consumidores se centro en la disminucin de los suministros de petrleo provenientes de los pases rabes, pero a medida que se fue restableciendo se dieron cuenta que el verdadero problema era la multiplicacin por 4 del precio del petrleo. Esta alza fue interpretada como una agresin totalmente injustificada.Los pases productores de petrleo y las grandes compaas petroleras se convirtieron ante la opinin pblica en los responsables de todos los males la desaceleracin del crecimiento, la inflacin, del incremento del paro, de las restricciones al consumo que tan duramente afectaron a la mayora de los pases consumidores en el 73/74.Entre los pases desarrollados los tres mejor que menor la superaron fueron los Estados Unidos, el Japn y la Republica Federal Alemana aun que por razones diferentes.La R.F.A. debido a su podero industrial, de un plan energtico de lucha contra la inflacin y a la calidad de sus redes de exportacin no llego a ver su equilibrio de pagos exteriores en peligro, el Japn un caso similar aunque tuvo un fuerte impacto inicial pero logro recuperarse, en cuanto a los Estados Unidos, el sistema monetario internacional le permite un desequilibrio permanente de su balanza por cuenta corriente, adems como ya se haba mencionado el cambio de la situacin era un punto a su favor, sino adems porque los dficits de las pases europeos obligaban a estos a conseguir mas y mas dlares, que continan siendo la pieza clave del sistema monetario internacional y las alzas del petrleo permitieron a muchos pequeos productores a pasar a ser competitivos y obtener enormes beneficios adicionales.Por el contrario para el resto de los pases industrializados y sobre todo para los del tercer mundo no productores de petrleo, la crisis fue una verdadera catstrofe, pues los dficits se elevaron a 183.000 millones de dlares en el periodo de 1974 -78 y a 39.000 millones para los pases de industrializacin media.En lugar de lograr un acuerdo de unin entre los pases consumidores fue lo contrario un insolidaridad, es decir se lanzaron a una poltica de slvese quien pueda intentando firmar acuerdos bilaterales con los pases productores mediante delegaciones aisladas, tratando cada una de obtener los mejores beneficios que el vecino. Aunque se hizo un intento en Washington por lo representes de los 13 pases importadores de petrleo no se consigui nada practico y cada uno sigui sus negociaciones independientes como por ejemplo para conseguir cantidades especificas de petrleo a cambio de ciertas mercancas (escasas) manufacturadas armamento moderno y tecnologa de punta, con esto consiguieron que los gobiernos exportadores de que su petrleo era tan importante como el oro y as estos nacionalizaron ms rpido su producciones con las alzas en los precios y generando los as el camino para siguiente crisis cinco aos despus.La primera crisis petrolera se manifest en primer lu gar en una cada generalizada del ritmo del crecimiento econmico. Todos los pases de LA OCDE (Organizacin para la Cooperacin y el Desarrollo Econmico), experimentaron recesiones de mayor o menor intensidad, los intercambios al interior de esta organizacin se redujeron en 12% en volumen entre el primer semestre de 1974, y el primer trimestre de 1975. Las empresas temiendo nuevas restricciones en la produccin o nuevos aumentos en los precios del petrleo, prefirieron liquidar sus stocks de productos terminados para responder a la demanda antes que incrementar la produccin, por lo que las inversiones se vinieron abajo, acentuando aun ms la recesin.El efecto de la primera crisis petrolera sobre el crecimiento econmicoTasas de variacin anual

Types Of Pollution And Their Effects Environmental Sciences Essay

Types Of Pollution And Their Effects Environmental Sciences EssayThe introduction of harmful waste materials, another(prenominal) forms of contamination which are a hazard to the life sustaining zephyr of the orbiter earth is normally known as taint. Pollution affects the ecosystem of the planet causes discomfort to al closely e genuinely living organism on the face of the planet. It is the pull up stakes of ever-increasing pollution into the environment that the ozone layer over the earth that defends us from the damaging ultraviolet rays of the sun is being depleted. Recent rise in the temperature of many countries crossways the world is also the result of the same. (Pollution)Types of PollutionTypically, there are main types of pollution, which areAir Pollution water PollutionNoise Pollution impose PollutionAir PollutionAir Pollution is the contamination of air in the atmosphere that is important for every living being on the planet to sustain life. The common air pollutants (the substances which cause pollution) acknowledge smoke and harmful gases from industries, CFCs and oxides produced by the automobiles, the burning of solid wastes, i.e. sulphur oxides, CO, CO2, particulate matter, NH3, smoke produced by explosives and other radioactive particles (e.g. Radon gas is released into the atmosphere because of radioactive decay within the Earths crust) being released into the atmosphere. Air Pollution back end also be a government issue of the natural disasters such as a volcanic eruption.Ill-effects of Air PollutionAir pollution causes depletion of the protective ozone layer. It also has dire health effects on the individuals living on earth it may cause respiratory hassles, asthma, lungs and heart diseases, etc. Air pollution also affects the cardiovascular system, but the effects wager on the individuals exposure to the pollutants.How to prevent Air PollutionSince some of the reasons of air pollution are natural, there is hardly any sort of poss ible clement control. But, for the human caused pollution, one of the finest ways to stop air pollution is to walk more or cycle more, rather than driving cars and other motor vehicles, because the liberation from them is the most prominent form of air pollution in todays context. Regular and on-time maintenance of vehicles can also help reduce the pollution substantially. Usage of bio-fuels, alike(p) CNG, and bio-gas also aid prevention of pollution in the atmosphere. In order to make sure that these rules are being followed there could be some human body of legislation from the government in the respective countries to ensure that there is reduced pollution ever. (Pollution, Water Pollution, Air Pollution)Water PollutionWater is one of the most important natural resources on the planet which is one of the necessary elements to sustain life on earth. Addition of harmful products to piss which make is unusable is commonly known as Water Pollution. These products could be chemic al, biological or physical materials that deteriorate the quality of water and the lives associated with it. Some of the most common water pollutants include industrial wastes (which are directly dumped into the sea of lakes making the water unfit for fishes and other organisms living in the water), domestic and farm wastes, oil spills, pesticides, as fountainhead as mining and bucolic wastes. (Pollution, Water Pollution, Air Pollution)Ill-effects of Water PollutionAbout 40% of the deaths globally are accounted by water pollution. Polluted water affects the flora and fauna of the sea organisms and these organisms when consumed by humans, cause harmful diseases. Also, the contamination of drinking water, which is produced from natural water resources, causes diseases such as jaundice, cholera, or typhoid.How to prevent Water PollutionAs such, there are no ways to ensure prevent water pollution. The most efficient way to prevent water pollution is to generate consciousness among the masses about the ill-effects of the same and if possible, enforce laws to prevent disposal of harmful wastes into the water.Noise PollutionIt is the excessive cacophony in the environment, in the main due to sounds created by machines. It is generally caused by loudspeakers, microphones, loud music, noise from industries, from construction and civil engineering works etc.Ill-effects of Noise PollutionThe main problem that noise pollution, (also known as sound pollution), causes is that it affects the physiological and psychological health of an individual who is exposed to the excessive sound. Sometimes, it can even cause deafness and afflicted hearing. It also causes annoyance which might result on blood pressure variations, ultimately leading to coronary diseases.How to prevent Noise PollutionAgain, legislation can be one of the most effective ways to reduce noise pollution. Also creation of airports, bus stands etc away from residential areas can be an effective way. (Noise Pol lution and its control)Land PollutionDegrading the earths surface by improper commercial, industrial, agricultural and domestic activities is known as land pollution. Dumping of e-wastes and other industrial wastes into the land causes land pollution. Insecticides, pesticides etc also harm the agricultural land and the soil. Mining, deforestation, oil refineries construction debris, etc are the most common land pollutants.Ill-effects of Land PollutionThe agricultural capability of soil gets affected as a result of the land pollution, making it infertile and unusable for farming purposes. Also, it might result in the heavy(a) of water table inside the ground.How to prevent Land PollutionIn order to prevent land pollution, individual should be more focused on buying bio-degradable products and the products can also be recycled, i.e. recycling the inorganic materials should be an important focus. As far as organic compounds are considered, they can be dumped in places which are far aw ay from residential places or agricultural lands. Reducing the use of pesticides and insecticides can also aid land pollution prevention. inunct spilling has to be taken care of. Anti-littering campaigns can be initiated to create awareness about ill-effects of littering.ConclusionIn conclusion, it would be safe to say that pollution is very important to be controlled if life is intended to be sustained on the planet. It may be in different forms but if the masses can be properly informed and educated along with strict legislations, pollution can be controlled.

Head Case :: Biology Essays Research Papers

Head CaseMost of the little girls I knew in my childhood liked to play drape up, host tea parties, play with dolls, paint, and do other normal childrens activities. When I was a little girl I enjoyed painting, hosting tea parties, and spent many of my weekends and discipline vacations competing in both national and international martial arts tournaments and exhibitions. Martial arts taught me self-discipline, self-control, and self-awareness as a child. It kept me physically fit, and made me more sure-footed in my abilities. However, as I progressed through the ranks I spent more time training and much more time competing. Once a practiti unmatchabler reaches the level of Black Belt, all sparring matches become full contact, meaning blows to the head, neck, and below the waist are now scored as hits as opposed to fouls by sporting rules. I reached the rank of Black Belt at age eight, meaning I participated in full contact sparring matches for roughly half-dozen years. In addition to my competing as a martial artist, I was also an amateur boxer for two years- from ages 13 to 15. At the time, I didnt think astir(predicate) the consequences of the sport I had chosen. The daily punishment of taking one or two wakeless blows to the head didnt seem troublesome at the time. All competitors wore gloves in addition to protective headgear and mouthguards. In the roughly ten years in which I fought competitively I sustained several concussions, and only one in which I lost consciousness. However you may wonder, what is the clinical definition of this condition, and how are concussions diagnosed? What is a Concussion? When an injury to the brain is sustained, it causes the brain to bounce against the hard bone of the skull. The force of the hit against the skull might cause tearing or twisting of structures and blood vessels in the brain. This tearing or twisting deep at bottom the brain tissue causes a breakdown in the normal flow of messages within the brain. This breakdown is the biological explanation of the concussion condition (1). Oh No Am I Concussed?There are over 600,000 cases of sustained concussion in the United States alone each year. Symptoms include, loss of consciousness, dizziness, nausea or vomiting, increased size of it of one pupil, loss of memory, severe headache, weakness in one or more extremities, or changes in behavior. These symptoms may last anywhere from a equalise hours to several weeks or months, depending on the seriousness of the injury, according to most physicians (1).

Is Diversity The Solution to Affirmative Action? Essay -- Equality Rac

IS DIVERSITY THE SOLUTION TO AFFIRMATIVE ACTIONEqual employment practices, in many organizations, fill been established through approbative action programs. These programs were created by government mandate to create a fair and non-discriminatory working environment in organizations. The need for affirmative action was recognized as early as the 1940s, as a concept, based on the racial diversity of our country. The goal was the redistribution of opportunities on the basis of race. like a shot as we approach the 21st century, affirmative action seems to be a dying issue, legally and otherwise. The fact still remains that we have a racially and culturally diverse population, here in the United States, and something has to take the place of affirmative action. Diversity seems to be the new concept of most public and secret organizations, Many Human Resources specialist seem to believe that where there is diversity there is no need for affirmative action. In this report I entrust l ook at what affirmative action has done for us, and where diversity can take us.President Johnson formally created affirmative action in 1965 it initially targeted employers that held federal contracts. The originating document for affirmative action was Executive Order 11246, which mandated a race-neutral means of equal opportunity and created a level playing field for previously excluded people. Employees should be treated equally without regard for their race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. With the passage of time, affirmative action received a broader definition and became the platform for womens groups, civil rights groups and other minorities. The umbrella term, affirmative action, refers to a variety of highly regulated efforts used ... ... B., & Packer, A. E. (1987). hands 2000 Work and workers for thetwenty-first century. Indianapolis Hudson Institute and Washington, D. C. U.S. Government depression Office.Source Carson Public Library Kessler, L. L. (1990). Managing Diversity In An Equal Opportunity Workplace.National Foundation for the Study of Employment Policy, Washington D. C.Source CSUDH Library Loden, M. & Rosener, J. B. (1991). Workforce America Managing EmployeeDiverstiy as a Vital Resource. Business One Irwin, Homewood, ILL. Source CSUDH Library Riccucci, N. M. (Spring, 1997). Cultural Diversity Programs to Prepare for WorkForce 2000 Whats done for(p) Wrong? Public Personnel Management, 26(1).Source CSUDH Library Sunderland, T. (1996). Diversity in the Workplace.<http//cctr.umkc.edu/wicc/wdpaper.ht Source CSUDH Internet 4 November 98