The Absence of Social Conflict Social Stability in Brave New World Essa

The Absence of Social Conflict Social Stability in hold out New World In Brave New World, Aldous Huxley introduces the dystopia of a society created on the principle of accessible stability at all costs. Huxley wrote this book in 1932 hoping to warn future generations of what he feared might happen if society did not do something to stop the inevitable. The leaders of our society today hope for and work towards amicable stability without taking away primitive rights. Social stability can only be achieved by a society whose beliefs in hearty and honest issues are never challenged. So even though modern society hopes for social stability, it is not a practical aspiration because it is obvious that some of the social and ethical issues of our society today are wrong and should be challenged. The moderate of peoples minds achieved by a strict caste system, hypnopedia, and the hallucinate frame is used to insure social stability that is so important in the Brave New W orld society. The leaders of the society do not sire in consideration what the effects of these methods might have on the individual, for example an earlier death. In Brave New World, the term social stability could in any case be termed societal control. This dystopia is similar to a communist government where the top 10% of society controls the lives of the other 90% of the people. The Bokanovsky process and Neo-Pavlovian Conditioning were both create by the Brave New World society to achieve the strict caste system the society is based on. The Bokanovsky process can make a fertilized egg bud and divide into as many as 96 identical eggs that will mature into 96 identical adults. After the eggs have been fertilized Neo-Pavlovian Conditioning beg... ... is advancement. In the Brave New World society they said that they believed in the advancement of technology, but really they only wanted it progress enough so that the society would not change. In our society to day, our social and ethical ideologies given to us by family, friends, and mass media are that people control their own destiny, happiness is attained by achievement, recycle, reduce, and reuse. All of these ideologies are the opposites of those in the Brave New World society, a society that would remain stable at all costs. Social stability in our society today is hoped for in some ways but will never be achieved. This is because, we want to develop ourselves as individuals as well as a society as a whole in any way possible. To do that, it is inevitable that social aspects of our society will change and therefore making our society socially unstable.

Free Process Essays - How to Prepare a Supreme Cafe Latte :: Expository Process Essays

How to Prep are a Supreme Cafe Latte Making espresso, cappuccino, cafe caffe latte or plain coffee berry is an art form. It takes a skilled artist to make coffee worth appreciating. Many people rotternot make coffee. The methods for brewing coffee may differ, but the coffee must be satisfying. There are many factors that decide whether a the coffee is satisfactory. I dont think it matters whether the coffee is the meek slobber brew or sophisticated cappuccino. It takes an accomplished craftsman to make it. Ive had enough cups of lousy coffee to conclude that coffee making is an art. Making drip coffee may seem simple enough, but havent you had coffee from a gas station? It never fails to have a bitter, burnt taste normally theres non-dairy creamer and a lingering smell of ancient coffee grinds. The more complex cappuccino and latte are harder to master. The more elements involved, the more likely different elements can go wrong. With the spate of chi-chi coffe e houses and euro-restaurants, lattes are more popular than ever in the U.S. Every coffee shop and restaurant thinks it can serve a latte. Ive even seen coffee stands in drugstores. Unfortunately, these sources rarely have coffee worth drinking. A simple cup of drip coffee can be know by any novice. Its to coffee making what coloring in the lines is to art, a small challenge. It take a true coffee connoisseur to master the espresso or latte. I am proud to be such a connoisseur. Learning to make a proper cup of coffee is akin to an art scholar learning under a great painter. You slowly work your way up. I learned from my mother. I started making coffee with Tasters Choice coffee crystals. I moved on to drip coffee, until graduating to the espresso machine. While it takes training and practice to make a latte, I think it also requires a certain talent. I dont stiff to toot my own horn, but most people whove had one of my lattes agree that mine are the best. I c an make cappuccino and espressos, but cafe lattes are by far the most popular in my house.

Depression Essay -- essays research papers

Clinical depression is one of many mental disorders affecting 1 in 10 Americans today. This disorder is characterized by ongoing feelings of sadness and despondency which leads to anxiety, agitation, feelings of emptiness, and loss of self-worth. Following these initial symptoms are possible weight loss or gain, insomnia, lack of energy, unusual indecisiveness, and even suicidal thoughts or attempts. There are many possible causes of major depression however, very often the disease strikes without any triggering cause which leads to a great deal of frustration by the abnormal person and his or her loved ones. Fortunately, scientists have narrowed the list to three major causes a first depressive episode caused by a traumatic event, a biochemical disorder, or an inherited disorder.      Depression can result from an emotionally or physically stressful incident. This has been termed by psychologists as first depressive episode. Possible causes take the death of a loved one, an abortion or miscarriage, a move to a new home or job, the end of an important relationship, financial problems, a chronic illness, or any other traumatic event. For many people, these incidents produce a mild to moderate case of the blues. They feel "down" for a while, notwithstanding they are able to continue functioning and performing everyday tasks. Although these people may experience the chemical imbalance that is the hallmark of depression, the brain abnormality typically ...

Stephen Edwin King :: essays research papers

Stephen Edwin pansy The second son of Donald and Nellie Ruth Pillsbury King was born on 1974 in Portland,Maine. His describe was Stephen Edwin King. After his parents serpertion as a toddler,Stephen and his erstwhile(a)er brother, David, were raised by his mother. Stephen, David, andtheir mother lived in Fort Wayne, Indiana, which was where Stephens fathers side ofthefamily lived. They then moved to Stratford, Connecticut, that was where Stephen Kingspent close of his childhood paying frequent visits to his mothers side of the familythatresided in Malden, Massachusetts and Pownal, Maine. Around his 11th anniversaryStephens mom moved to Durham, Maine, along with Stephen and his brother, to takecare of her parents, whom were to old to take care of themselves. Stephens school days were spent in the Durham Grammar School. He thenattended Lisbon Falls High School, graduating in 1966. He went to college at theUniversity of Maine at Orono, at which, during his spophomore year, he worte a weeklycolumn for THE MAINE CAMPUS. During his years at college he was opposed to thewar in Vietnam, declaring it unconstitutional. After his first in 1970 Stephen hadaquired a Bachelor of Science in English and immediately was qualified to teach at thehigh school level. As a schoolchild Stephen worked at the Folger Library, which was on the University ofMaine at Oronos campus. While working he met a fellow employee named TabithaSpruce, who he married in Janurary 1971.Stephen Kings first publication was a pitiful story he wrote and sent to a mensmagazine. This is where his first profit from writing came from, throughout the fewyearsafter his graduation he worte stories and sell them to mens magazines. All of theseshortstories would be later gathered into a collection known as the "Night Shift collection."Inthe fall of 71 King was hired as a teacher at Hampden Academy, a public high school inHampden, Maine. He still found time to compile short stories and work on his nove l on theweekends and evenings. Kings first big break came on the spring of 1973 upon the acceptence ofDoubleday & Co. to publish Stephen Kings novel Carrie. After eruditeness from his neweditor, Bill Thompson, that a major paperback sale would make him financially secureenough to quit teaching, Stephen moved his now growing family to southern Mainebecause of his grandmothers ever growing sickness. During the writing of Salems Lot

Sophocles Antigone :: essays research papers

This paper is an essay on Antigone. The story Antigone is a great Greek tragedy. Sophocles, an ancient Greek playwright, is the author of the story. It is a great story. It is known throughout the world. This essay is going to trace the character of Antigone through the beginning, middle, and end of the story.Antigone is a very strong willed character. In the very prototypal scene of the book Antigone is talking to her infant (Ismene) about how their two brothers (Eteocles and Polyneices) killed each other fighting over the thrown. Antigone is enraged over the fact that Creon (Antigones uncle and the mod king) has buried Eteocles with military honors but has left Polyneices to rot. Creon has declared that any person who buries Polyneices will be killed, but Antigone doesnt care. Antigone is driven to bury her brother and she wants her sisters help. Ismene, I am going to bury him. Will you come?(pg.750 line 30). Ismene is too afraid of Creon to help Antigone. Antigone is determine d to bury her brother at any cost, and unlike her sister, she is not afraid of Creon. Creon is not strong generous to stand in my way,(pg.750 line 35). Not even the threat of death is enough to make Antigone afraid of Creon. At this point in the book she is stubborn and self-righteous. Antigone then goes out at night and buries Polyneices. That makes Creon very mad, so he unburies Poylneices and posts withstand around the body. The next day a whirlwind kicks up around the guards and Antigone starts to bury Polyneices again. Unfortunately the whirlwind died before Antigone could finish burying him, so she is captured and brought to Creon. Antigone boldly admits to burying her brohter contempt the fact that she could be killed. Creon tries to convince her that what she did is wrong by pointing out that Eteocles is her brother and Polyneices is a double-dealer for attacking the city. Despite the fact that her brother, Polyneices, attacked the city, Antigone still loves her brothers equally. His own brother, traitor or not, are equal in blood, (pg.766 line 110). Antigone enrages Creon by refusing to admit Polyneices fault. Ismene tries to take the blame with Antigone but Antigone refuses her help. Yes, save yourself, I shall not envy you. in that location are those who will praise you, I will have honor too, (pg.

Socrates: the Question of Morality :: Philosophy, Philosophers

The question of morality came up when Socrates and Cephalus were having a conversation about money. Cephalus says soul who has led a bad life will have nightmares and a soulfulness who leads a good life will not have such dreams and will be happy. Cephalus says being true and giving things prat is morality. Socrates awards an example were you can do something good by not gibing something back. His example was if you borrow a weapon from a friend, and he is sane at the time and at the time you should give it back your friend is insane then you shouldnt give it back so you can protect him from doing harm which is also good. Cephalus agreed that Socrates was correct that this was doing something good so Socrates said if that is the case than the definition of morality isnt to tell the truth and give back whatever one has borrowed. Polemarchus interjected verbalize that morality is to tell the truth and to give back whatever one has borrowed if you intrust Simonides. Polemarchus s ays what Simonides was trying to say was friends owe friends good deeds not bad ones. Socrates responds by saying, what Simonides meant was we give back to people what is appropriate for them, or owed to them. Polemarchus said to be consistent with what I said earlier it has to be the art of giving benefit and harm to friends and enemies respectively. Socrates makes a point that morality only seems to be multipurpose when something is not being used, for example when money needs to be saved. Socrates asks if a moral person can harm anyone and Polemarchus agreed that a moral person could harm an evil man. What Socrates was trying to get at was well if this man was really moral why is he trying to harm anyone. Socrates goes on saying many things but one main point he made was as follows It is not the job of a moral person to harm a friend or anyone else, it is the job of his opposite, an immoral person. Polemarchus agreed to this, which basically went against everything he said in th e opening of this conversation. Socrates says that the claim that its right and moral to give back to people what they are owed, if this is taken to mean that a moral person owes harm to his enemies and help to his friends, turns out to be a claim no canny person would make.

Analysis and Discussion of the Nature of Team Building Process

I contribute just been appointed as a Manager of a Department within a new company. My division go away be to fail a new incline group of twelve into an in effect(p) and gummy business group. The aim of this paper will be to analyse and discuss the nature of the squadbuilding process. I will look at the various components involved in this process, from Leadership Styles and conversation methods to decision-making, planning, and group kinetics.Within the circumstance of this framework I will attempt to integrate several academic models and theories in order to clarify my own ideas on the teambuilding process.Finally, I will counselling on my own personal style of leadership and motivational techniques. Would I have been able to lead the team to achieve its maximum potential? pretend I achieved a good balance between directing group actions and giving the group the freedom to make their own choices? Ultimately, have I been unreserved enough with the group to gain their trust and respect?The most important aspect in the initial teambuilding phase is time spent on planning. onwards the team meets as a group it will be necessary to take a craply define the reason for the teams existence. What will be their function within the context of use of the organisations future(a) strategies? As Coghlan (1994,) states Groups and teams play a key habit in the process of planned organisational channel. The change process typically involves teams in the organisations hierarchy responding to the change agenda and adapting to it in terms of its tasks and processes. I compute it is essential at this stage to also consider which leadership style thrusts me the best opportunity to pretend maximum effectiveness for the group. The previous questions identify several separate issues i.e. what tasks will the group have to perform and how will this affect individuals within the group? butt Adair (1985) identifies the relationship between the task, the group and the individual (see fig. 1) and how a balance must be maintained between all three in order to produce the most effective results for the organisation.Fig.1 Interaction of needs within the group. ( Adair, 1985)In order to fulfil each of these needs it is necessary to obtain a juicy distributor point of information, and to establish lines of communication. My first task will be to identify the companies strategy and what requirements they have for the team. Will the team have to report back specifically to anyone, or will there be a certain level of group autonomy? It will also be necessary to define the boundaries/parameters that the team will be required to work within. I will also establish what resources atomic number 18 available i.e. money, information, time and materials. Will we have use of a secretary for notetaking and access to a suitable room for team meetings?Once the issues of task have been established I will then explore the expectations and experiences of the ind ividuals who will stand for the group.Schutz (1958) argues that it is possible to determine how well a group will come together by looking at the compatibility of the individuals within that group. In order to accord disposition types and balance skill levels it is useful to look at the work of Meredith Belbin (1993) whose research offers a typology of team roles and behaviour (fig. 2). Each team member would be required to complete Belbins Self-Perception Inventory before the meeting.Tyson and Jackson (1992) further categorised Belbins original eight roles into subsections of people, task and ideas. They identified the wide range of differences in personality and character those individual team members would bring to a group, this in turn enables predictions to be made about the possible strengths and weaknesses in group dynamics. I think that it would also be a useful tool for team members to understand their own unique attributes that they bring to the team.These one to one me etings will be a good opportunity to express to team members an outline of the companies objectives and to get a feel for their own expectations and interests. I would also emphasise that within the team a level of parity will exist, irrespective of external hierarchies, and that I would always be available if individual members felt that decisions taken within the group were cause external pressures. My final task before organising the first team meeting would be to get each member to briefly write down what their levels of expertness and experience are and a short outline about themselves, plus relevant e-mail addresses and telephone numbers (if they have access).This initial pattern of communication is comparable to the wheel Mullins (1999) where the leader acts as a central conduit through which all parties communicate and indirectly are all linked. My eventual aim however would be to decentralise this communication method and achieve the all-channel network Mullins (1999). The latter system requires that all members of the team interact with each other. I would hope that this system would produce an environment where all members feel comfortable enough to express themselves freely, and that the communication channels promote the free exchange of ideas.The next stage in the teambuilding cycle is the team meeting. This will require a certain amount of planning and consideration. This preparation will hopefully convey a level of professionalism and intent to each of the team members. Because the team are new to each other, and to me, I will be movementing to gain their trust and promote confidence in the project.It is essential to experience that everyone will be able to attend the meeting. I would plan for weekly meetings initially on one dedicated afternoon (probably Monday). This would allow the team to clear their schedule well in further. Regular attendance demonstrates a level of commitment and promotes team unity, which is vitally important at th is stage. It is also important to have an agenda with a time-scale built in, meetings can become long and drawn out and members lose interest and focus. Team members should be notified well in advance of the meeting, either by e-mail or memo.The initial phase of the meeting will allow the team to introduce themselves. This will then be followed by my own submission, and a presentation which would emphasise the organisations goals and objectives (It might be necessary to invite someone from senior management to give a short introduction to the project, and to stress the importance of the teams involvement). I would then encourage the group to establish a team mission/charter, which would give the team focus, and would also help to develop team identity. It is important that members do not feel alienated because they are unable to link their work with overall organisational goals Maslow (1954).At the end of this talk I will introduce two much concepts to the group. The idea here is to increase awareness in the teambuilding process, whether through improved decision making or much efficient problem solving.The first is the observation sheet Mullins (pg.498, 1999). This is a feedback mechanism on individual participation, and could be a useful tool in future weeks. The sheet is a simple method for giving constructive feedback. However, in order to promote a non-judgemental environment it would be necessary to employ an item-by-item assessor to undertake this role. Secondly I would introduce Tuckmans (1965) Team Development Wheel. The wheel looks at change in the group process and focuses on the dynamics of a teams development. Tuckman identifies four different stages that should be accomplished in order to attain group maturity. The stages areAt stage one, Forming, the team has many questions, concerns. thither are certain anxieties like, where do they fit into the group? Why am I here? Who are the other team members? Will I be able to get all my questions an swered? It is important at this stage that the Team Leader has prepared well enough to reassure everyone by providing suitable answers and by providing a framework whereby individuals will have a better understanding of what they are expected to contribute. Belbins (1993) team analysis could be usefully deployed at this stage.At stage two, Storming, the group may find difficulties occur as the team attempts to assert identity. Personal differences will emerge on the proposed direction that the group should take. This is a particularly difficult stage as competition and jealousy can cause other members to feel demotivated and to question their need to belong to the team. I would try to foster an open and honest forum. I would attempt to decrease my own influence on the decision making process and encourage the team to work their way through any difficulties, and hope that other leaders may emerge to offer further support.At stage three, Norming, a more cohesive unit will emerge. Team members will have developed more confidence in the group, there is a greater sense of belonging. Members opinions are more readily accepted, and preconceived ideas are diluted in order to achieve common consent. At this point I can act more as a facilitator, providing occasional feedback, but allowing the group to formulate and expedite their own decisions.Finally at stage four, Performing, the group will have achieved a high state of maturity. A supportive and trust based ethos permeates the group. Tasks are tackled effectively, and the group has a flexible and resourceful approach to decision making and problem solving. My role at this point would still be as a facilitator, able to offer experience and advice when required.Each stage provides the group with insight into the various mechanisms that are required to allow the teambuilding process to progress. By understanding the process the team will perhaps be more adaptable to change and work more fluently towards achieving team goals.It is vital that team unity is established at the earliest opportunity. Its important that team members leave this first meeting with a appointed attitude to what they are being asked to accomplish. The team mission will outline the teams objectives, and members will be encouraged to share ideas and communicate with each other or through me.A further way to improve team unity is through the use of teambuilding exercises and training programs. Teambuilding exercises will give the group a luck to deal with real issues in a safe environment. They encourage the group to respond as a collective unit to achieve results and they assist with team bonding and individual growth. Taking this concept a step further, I would schedule a two to three day weekend away from the company, and devote a portion of the resources (if they are available) in a practical teambuilding exercise program.This type of weekend would focus on team issues like trust, respect, and empowerment, and would impro ve social relationships and promote strong partnerships. I would arrange this time away in the first month of the project. Training would be tailored to reflect my leadership style, whereby, I would empower the team with the freedom to make decisions within defined parameters Murdock (1999). I would arrange training sessions to deal with the two complementary key issues required for this process, i.e. communication and decision-making. With empowerment comes a level of responsibility a responsibility that each team member would have towards each other to listen effectively and give constructive feedback. Team members must provide each other with feedback on whether their performance enhances the teams performance or impedes it. To do this they need an understanding of non-verbal communication and effective listening skills. Regular training sessions could provide each member with key skills. I would try to initiate some kind of training budget, specifically for the team, in order t hat this program of improvements could be accomplished.

The Public Private Education System Education Essay

The boundaries between the universe and common soldier proviso of instilldaysing in Cambodia crap become progressively blurred. While the figure of person-to-person sh digests remains fringy and by and large limited to elite drills in urban countries, de fieldization is come ining usual schools-invisibly and a great deal un awayici for each atomic number 53(prenominal)y-on an unprecedented graduated t equal. Given policy military force per social unit atomic number 18as from inter subject fiscal establishments, the boundaries between the universe and the close are neartimes purpose repletey erased by government activity functionaries in the name of cosmopolitan prime schooling and Education for All ( EFA ) in order to impart secluded financess into a badly under blood li consider public instruction organization. In this context, the cloak-and-dagger proviso of instruction non however becomes attractive to policy tiers as a feasible mechanism in shuting the support spread still anyways reflects government activity s committedness to deregulating, decentalisation, and marketisation of the economic system since the 1990s. In add-on to government-led attempts, concealed denationalization of instruction besides thrives at the grass-root degrees in the tendency of reclusive tutoring, which al pocket-sizeds teachers to supplement their meagre wages with extra income and stumbleers savants instruction of higher(prenominal) choice compared to public schools. nonwithstanding the positive facets of snobbish tutoring-such as spread childs play cognition and involvements for persons ( Bray, 2007 ) , pull off uping human capital for societies ( Psacharopoulos & A Patrinos, 2002 ) , and supplying forward-looking schemes for get bying with rapid geopolitical passages for a variety of instruction stake submiters ( Silova, 2009 Silova & A Brehm, 2013 ) -the secret tutoring in Cambodia has grown in size to such an extent that it is now arguably greater in demand, value, and income coevals than the public instruction system. In kernel, snobby tutoring has become much than than of merchandise to both instructors and pupils in Cambodia than the public instruction system because of its faculty to bring forth higher incomes for instructors and supply a more get along ( and individualized ) instruction to pupils. The tete-a-tete proviso of instruction through hole-and-corner(a) tutoring has as add togethered confusable builds to public instruction, going both a severalize demand ( center chiefly on topics examined on national trials or thought to supply reform occupation chances ) and extra demand ( run intoing the incommensurate supply of public instruction ) . It has, in mo, usurped the legitimacy of public instruction in Cambodia.Although the Kampuchean administration do efforts to get rid of enrollment fees in the 1990s, prohi instant informal fees wish well buying testing documents from instru ctors in 2005, and label hidden tutoring unethical in 2008 ( see Asian Development Bank, 2008 Royal brass of Cambodia, 2008 ) , it has non enforced such policies. Left unregulated, the market for secret tutoring has begun to falsify the mainstream route of study by switching important parts of curricular content from the populace to the head-to-head proviso of instruction. For illustration, any(prenominal) surveies report public school instructors blackjacking their ain pupils into go toing additional lessons ( Bray, 2007 Dawson, 2009 ) . Other surveies have shown a important sum of new curricular hinder or prep being presented in toffee-nosed tutoring categories ( Brehm & A Silova, 2012 ) . Since many instructors live in poorness because of limited or stretched income ( Benveniste et al. , 2008 62 ) , keep backing information during mainstream instruction becomes wiz manner to guarantee a market for clubby tutoring. Yet, the costs associated with clubby tutoring pr ohibit many pupils from go toing these auxiliary lessons, therefore lending to socioeconomic unfairnesss ( Bray, 1999a, 2007 Dawson, 2009 ) .Constructing on old search ab surface the range and nature of private tutoring in Cambodia ( Bray, 2007 Dawson, 2009 ) , this survey aims to straight encompass quality and equity deductions of private tutoring in the broader context of denationalization of public instruction. The chief research inquiry examines why, how, and under what fortunes denationalization of public instruction takes the configuration of private tutoring and what deductions this concealed denationalization has for the quality and equity of instruction proviso for Kampuchean youthfulness person. Following an overview of old research on private tutoring in the Southeast Asian and internationalistic context, we situate the survey of private tutoring in the political, economic, and historical context of Cambodia. Pulling on qualitative and quantitative informations col lected in 2011 in one dominion in Cambodia ( including three schools in an urban location and three schools in a campestral location ) , this survey identifies factors private road the demand for private tutoring, compares teaching methods used in public school categories and private tutoring lessons, and examines deductions of private tutoring for long-run societal and economic equity among Kampuchean young person.Gestating Private TutoringThe Public-Private Hybrid Education SystemSystems of private tutoring are turning worldwide. In Europe, most(prenominal) European Union states experience some degree of private tutoring ( Bray, 2011 ) in the United States, private tutoring is estimated to be a US $ 5 billion industry 1 and in Hong Kong, private tutoring has become so popular that images of historied coachs are on a fixture basis found in newspaper and coach advertizements ( Kwo & A Bray, 2011 ) . There is even a Chinese private tutoring company listed on the New York Sto ck Exchange. 2 However, private tutoring is non limited to Western and economically create states. It has besides been found in states every bit diverse as Egypt ( Fergany, 1994 ) , India ( Aggarwal, 1998 ) , and Kenya ( Nzomo et al. , 2001 ) . Asia is possibly the continent where private tutoring is most widespread ( Bray & A Lykins, 2012 ) , with the more economically advanced states, like South Korea, mainland China and Hong Kong, being used as the empirical footing for what some have called hyper-education ( Dierkes, 2010 ) . 3 scorn the range of private tutoring worldwide and its peculiar prevalence in Asia, it however takes different signifiers depending on context. Bray ( 2009 ) conceptualizes private tutoring as an institutionalised fee-based auxiliary instruction that occurs because of a scope of issues including high bets proving, remedial categories, structural issues like overloaded course of study, and/or intensive societal competition. The common metaphor for priv ate tutoring is buns instruction. Yet, in our position, in Cambodia the shadow instruction metaphor misses the crossroad between public and private schooling. Following the treatment of the larger literature on shadow instruction in the subdivisions below, we elaborate the conceptualisation of the intercrossed system of instruction found in Cambodia, concentrating on its divergent and convergent points with the shadow metaphor.The shadow metaphorPrivate tutoring is ordinarily referred to as shadow instruction because it mimics ( or shadows ) mainstream schooling ( Stevenson & A Baker, 1992 Bray, 1999b Lee et al. , 2009 ) . The survey of private tutoring deep down this conceptualization is concerned with topics taught on the national course of study, non extracurricular activities, like guitar lessons or dance. The analogy to a sundial cast a shadow to state the transition of clip is frequently used to depict shadows cast by systems of instruction that tell abou t the alterations in inn ( Bray, 2007, 2011 Bray & A Lykins, 2012 ) . In peculiar, Bray ( 2009 ) explains that the metaphor of the shadow is utile for several groundsFirst, private supplementary tutoring scarcely exists because the mainstream instruction system exists 2nd, as the size and form of the mainstream system alteration, so make the size and form of auxiliary tutoring 3rd, in about all societies much more attending focuses on the mainstream than on its shadow and 4th, the characteristics of the shadow system are much less distinguishable than those of the mainstream system. ( p. 13 )The shadow instruction metaphor clearly separates mainstream schooling from private tutoring, and focal points on how the two influence, and are influenced by, one anformer(a). Evidence of private tutoring around the universe suggests that there are multiple factors driving the demand for shadow instruction. First, the prevalence of high-stake scrutinies has created a demand for private tutoring among pupils to better prepare for and successfully pass miscellaneous scrutinies obligatory to progress to higher degrees of schooling. Second, private tutoring occurs when pupils need excess aid in get the hanging a certain acquirement or subject that has proven excessively hard to understand during mainstream schooling. Third, there are assorted structural issues that cause private tutoring, such as short school yearss and low instructor wages. Impacting all three of these factors is the incr chastenessd social force per unit area put on parents and pupils to win in school. Acting as a non- faculty member factor taking to private tutoring, equal force per unit area besides exacerbates the demand for excess categories, as parents and pupils perceive private tutoring as an effectual manner to gain an advantage in school, sometimes patronage any existent additions in academic accomplishment.High-stakes scrutiniesWithin the shadow metaphor, private tutoring is often ass ociated with an enrichment scheme, foregrounding its function in lay outing pupils for high-stakes scrutinies ( Baker & A LeTendre, 2005 61 ) . In peculiar, high-stakes scrutinies increase pupil and parental anxiousnesss about tutelage, registration, or graduation. The premise is that high-stakes scrutinies serve as a gate-keeper to instruction and labour market chances ( Baker & A LeTendre, 2005 62 ) and that pupil success on high-stakes scrutinies would take to better instruction and employment chances in the here subsequently. This is why crush schools have emerged in many states to fix pupils of assorted academic abilities ( from remedial to high winners ) for high-stakes scrutinies. For illustration, Tansel and Bir arouse ( 2006 ) study that extremely competitory higher instruction entryway scrutinies in Turkey create the demand for private tutoring. Similarly, the secondary school choice procedure in Japan informly produces a strong logic for pupils to go to juku, an establishment offering a assortment of private tutoring lessons across all educational degrees ( Sawada & A Kobayashi, 1986 Russell, 2002 Roesgaard, 2006 Dierkes, 2008 Dawson, 2010 ) . Some surveies, nevertheless, have questioned the nexus between high-stakes scrutinies and private tutoring. For illustration, Aurini and Davis ( 2004 ) observed that tutoring concerns are turning well in Canada despite the fact that Canadian universities lack university entryway scrutinies and are non arrayed on a steep prestigiousness hierarchy, as are universities in early(a) states such as the United States and Japan.Although Cambodia has what look to be high-stakes scrutinies in house present 9 and grade 12, 4 the commoditisation of instruction that has resulted from the neoliberal structural accommodation policies in the 1990s has practically eliminated the high-stakes nature of these scrutinies. This has occurred because multiple goods and services are sold during the full interroga tion procedure, go forthing the demand to really discerp or cram for the scrutiny to lone pupils who coffin nail non afford the assorted fees or pupils who are ethically opposed to educational corruptness. First, scrutiny replies or mention ushers ( cheat-sheets ) can be purchased from local photocopy shops yearss or hours before the scrutiny. The assorted reply or darnel sheets cost different monetary values depending on their known quality ( i.e. , whether the beginning of the reply or mention sheet is known to come from a instructor, a certain location, an decision maker, or others ) . Why would pupils cram for scrutinies when they can easy buy replies before the trial? Second, during the scrutiny, many services can be purchased from the two monitors ( instructors administrating the scrutiny ) in each schoolroom or controllers ( the instructor supervising a group of monitors ) standing outside. assimilators can pay monitors to allow them utilize either mini-textbooks purchased at a photocopy Centre, answer sheets, or bet in groups. Additionally, for a higher monetary value, some monitors or accountants are willing to assist pupils by either chartering in a fairly scrutiny sheet and go throughing it along to pupils, or supplying one-on-one aid during the scrutiny. Sometimes during the procedure, pupils pay monitors, monitors pay accountants, and accountants pay supervisors ( instructors in charge of a group of accountants ) -all to maintain eyes looking elsewhere. 5 In some obiter dictums, parents pay a fee to guarantee a certain monitor or accountant is assigned to their kid s category in order for that pupil to have aid on the more hard topics ( typically mathematics or chemical light ) from a instructor who teaches those topics. The jobs of rip offing on national scrutinies have repeatedly made headlines in the Kampuchean intelligence, but the assorted manikins are widely known to go on despite official warnings ( see Cheng, 2011 Chhron , 2010 Saoyuth, 2010 ) . As the gloss of any instruction meritocratic order is all but eliminated by the many fees during the scrutiny procedure, these trials are high-stakes in name save few if any pupils feel force per unit area from the scrutiny beyond non acknowledgeing adequate money to guarantee a high grade. In fact, pupils unable to pay the high costs typically drop out far before the national scrutinies. 6 Remedial tutoringPrivate tutoring is frequently thought of as assisting some pupils maintain up with the content taught in regimen school. For illustration, de Silva ( 1994 ) identified several factors that create the demand for remedial tutoring pupil and instructor absence, frequent closing of school, uneffective instruction and carelessness on the constituent of the instructor, every bit good as immature, in undergo or unqualified instructors managing these topics may non be able to take the pupils to a proper apprehension of the subdivisions taught ( p. 5 ) . In these fortunes, remedial private tutoring serves to get the better of these spreads or lacks in pupils acquisition and construct their assurance enabling them to vie with others and see a sharp and pleasant intent ( p. 5 ) . In add-on to demand for remedial private tutoring by pupils and parents, some politicss have besides mandated or encouraged the utilisation of it. The educational system of Bosnia and Herzegovina, for illustration, provides compulsory auxiliary categories for remedial pupils. Traditionally, if more than 50 per centum of the pupils in a category are holding jobs get the hanging the commensurate affair, the instructor is obliged to form alleged remedial categories in that topic. Remedial categories are held after regular school hours and are an chance for the instructor to make extra work with fighting pupils ( Husremovic & A Trbic, 2006 ) . Vouchers are another manner authoritiess can promote the usage of remedial private tutoring. In Australia, the authorities uses verifiers to fund pupils who fall behind to take remedial private tutoring categories ( Bishop, 2007 ) .Remedial private tutoring is besides available in Cambodia, but it is merely one of the many suits of private tutoring ( see Table 1 ) . Students who need excess aid with assorted school topics can buy extra educational services to make full spreads in their cognition. However, this is non the chief ground for go toing private tutoring lessons. By and large, Kampuchean pupils attend private tutoring lessons expected by their instructors as a continuance of their regular school twenty-four hours, non needfully for redress intents ( Brehm & A Silova, 2012 ) . If pupils need remedial tutoring, they would hold to take these lessons in add-on to regular private tutoring ( Rien Kuo 7 ) . Remedial private tutoring is frequently referred to as excess particular private tutoring ( Rien Kuo Pises ) and is offered by instructors to pupils in one-on-one or little group lessons. Typically, these remedial categories cost more than Rien Kuo ( regular private tutoring ) , sometimes every bit high as US $ carbon monthly for one hr of analyzing one topic. However, the separation of these two types of private tutoring is non ever along remedial lines. Some pupils attend Rien Kuo when they need excess aid on a certain lesson, and some pupils attend Rien Kuo Pises because it offers a better acquisition environment than Rien Kuo.Structural issuesThe demand for private tutoring besides stems from structural issues, such as an overladen course of study, deficiency of fiscal resources, or educational corruptness. First, overloaded course of study is frequently attributed to the turning demand for private tutoring, proposing that public school instructors may prosecute in private tutoring after school to learn the stuff they were unable to cover during school hours. For illustration, course of study reforms implemented in many of the post-Soviet democrac ies in the 1990s stretched the bing course of study by presenting new academic topics ( e.g. , information and communicating engineerings, civics, and foreign linguistic communications ) without well altering the familial Soviet course of study. In Lithuania, Budiene and Zabulounis ( 2006 213 ) study that the fresh introduced student-centred instruction methods consumed more clip than the old teacher-centred attacks. Private tutoring was therefore used to run into the demand for more clip necessary to finish the needed national course of study, utilizing new teaching/learning methodological abridgments. The association between an overladen course of study and private tutoring is besides reported in surveies of private tutoring in Cyprus, Indonesia, Lebanon, Nigeria, and Russia, ( Bray, 2007 37 ) , every bit good as Southeast/Central Europe and Central Asia ( Silova, 2009 Silova et al. , 2006 ) . In Cambodia, pupils and parents perceive private tutoring as a mechanism enabling i nstructors to decently learn the topics include in the national course of study ( Brehm & A Silova, 2012 ) . In peculiar, many parents believe that there is merely non adequate clip in the school twenty-four hours to cover all course of study, doing specific mentions to the decrease of the school twenty-four hours following the debut of double- and triple-shift schooling. Despite the few reported instances of instructors purposefully decelerating down content bringing to make a market for private tutoring ( Bray, 1999a 55 ) , the sensed deficiency of clip notwithstanding leads to a perceived demand for more instructional clip merely to supply needed coverage of the national course of study.Second, low educational outgos supply to the demand for private tutoring. In states financially unable to adequately back up public instruction, private tutoring emerges as a mechanism to supplement low instructor wages, provide smaller category sizes, and offer larning stuffs to pupils outsi de the national course of study ( Silova, et al. , 2006 Silova, 2009 Bray, 2010 for the Kampuchean instance see Bray & A Bunly, 2005 Silova & A Brehm, 2013 ) . For illustration, Cambodia spends 2.3 per centum of GDP on instruction, puting it among the lowest in the Southeast Asia part and below the universe s norm of 4.8 per centum ( European Commission, 2012 ) . Although the budget allotment to the MoEYS recurrent outgos experienced an addition starting in the 2000s, there has been a steady lessening since 2007 ( see Figure 1 ) . Harmonizing to the European Commission ( 2012 ) , there was a down(prenominal) tendency in budgeted recurrent outgos between 2007 ( 19.2 per centum ) and 2012 ( 15.9 per centum ) . 8 Meanwhile, surveies have found that families contribute a larger portion on the instruction per kid than does the authorities whereas the authorities spends on meanspirited US $ 50 per kid per twelvemonth ( Ratcliff, 2009 11 ) , mansions spend between US $ 48 ( folks y countries ) to US $ 157 ( urban countries ) per kid per twelvemonth ( NEP, 2007 18 ) . Of family instruction outgos, about 38 per centum goes to education fees, which includes the cost of private tutoring ( NEP, 2007 ) .Figure 1. MoEYS Budgeted and Actual Recurrent OutgosBeginning Education Sector Working Group, 2006 European Commission, 2012Third, the deficiency of educational resources disproportionately bear upon teacher rewards. In Cambodia, there has been a wide consensus among pedagogues, brotherhood leaders, decision makers, and society in general that instructor wages are deficient to cover life disbursals ( Benveniste et al. , 2008 ) . In 2007, for illustration, a main(a) instructor s base wage was US $ 44 per month, which made it hard ( if non out(predicate) ) for many instructors to afford the basic necessities of nutrient, lodging, and heath attention, every bit good as support any kids or aged household members ( Benveniste et al. , 2008 59 ) . 5 To some extent, p rivate tutoring has helped underpaid instructors generate extra income. For illustration, a common 2nd business among Kampuchean instructors, particularly in urban primary schools, is private tutoring ( 41.5 per centum of urban instructors identified tutoring as out-of-school work Benveniste et al. , 2008 69 ) . Net incomes from private tutoring can stand for about two tierces of the monthly mean base wage with basic allowances ( Benveniste et al. , 2008 38 ) . Similar to instructors in other geographic countries ( such as the Southeast/Central Europe and the former Soviet Union ) , many Kampuchean instructors have adopted the logic of service proviso, utilizing private tutoring as a cardinal income-generation activity ( Silova & A Bray, 2006 ) .Fourth, there is hold in the allotment of financess. In Cambodia, both teacher wages and Programme-Based Budgeting ( unallocated money intended for single schools, which used to be called the Priority Action Programme, or boob ) are r outinely distributed tardily. Teachers have claimed that the distribution of rewards is typically delayed ( VSO, 2008 ) . For illustration, salary expense in January 2012 had non been allocated to instructors in seven states by the terminal of the month ( Denn Ayuthyea, 2012 ) . anecdotal narratives sing the Programme-Based Budgeting indicate that the money is frequently disbursed yearss before the District or Provincial Offices of Education require a study detailing how the money was spent. This typically leads to distort studies detailing where money was exhausted merely to run into the demands of the MoEYS. A 2nd issue with delayed financess is the escape that occurs between the Ministry of Economy and Finance ( the ministry creditworthy for let go ofing money to the MoEYS ) and when it reaches instructors. As money is passed from the Economy and Finance Ministry to the MoEYS, which is so sent to the Provincial and District Offices of Education and so eventually receive by th e schools, money is lost ( or cut in Khmer ) at each phase. single common ailment from instructors is that their wages are neer the reform sum. Combined, low wages-made even lower by leakage-require instructors to keep 2nd occupations, which about 70 percent claim to hold ( Benveniste et al. , 2008 68 ) .Finally, structural issues that lead to private tutoring by authorities instructors may ensue in what many perceivers consider educational corruptness ( Chapman, 2002 ) . Educational corruptness has been defined as any regulation where a instructor uses his or her monopoly of power ( delegating anatomys, allowing admittance, etc. ) over his or her pupils in a system with small answerability ( Bray, 2003 ) . Contributions given to instructors by pupils, for illustration, have been labelled as a baneful pattern ( Hallack & A Poisson, 2008 253 ) because some instructors may honor pupils who donate and punish those who do non. The pattern of instructors keeping private tutoring lessons for their ain pupils, nevertheless, is more hard to clearly label educational corruptness. For illustration, Johnson ( 2011 ) has provided grounds that Kyrgyzstani pupils blame the context, non the perpetrators i.e. , instructors ( p. 254 ) of corruptness, because workers perceived to be lending to the grater good of societya are allowed to pervert from the jurisprudence ( p. 253 ) . Furthermore, Dawson ( 2009 71 ) problematize vitamin D the word picture of the pattern as corruption in Cambodia with consideration toward the grossly unequal income of province instructors and the jobs intact with curriculum clip, content, and instructor teaching methods in the system by locating the pattern of private tutoring indoors the broad social issues. To sum up, the shadow instruction metaphor assumes that private tutoring can react to the single pupil demands ( e.g. , maintaining up with the needed school course of study or bettering academic public innovation on trials ) and even systemic educational jobs ( e.g. , overloaded course of study or low instructor wages ) with the aid of the shadow instruction market. For under-achieving pupils, private tutoring may offer an chance for remedial instruction after school hours. For competitively minded pupils, private tutoring may help with more intensive formulation for high-stakes scrutinies. For underpaid instructors, private tutoring may supply chances for auxiliary income. And, in the context of an overladen course of study, private tutoring may supply a infinite for pedagogues to learn the stuff that was non covered at school. On the surface, most of the factors normally associated with the turning demand for private tutoring are present in the Kampuchean context. However, they do non explicate the entangled agreements between the public educational system and private tutoring that emerged in the 1990s ( see Brehm & A Silova, 2012 Brehm, forthcoming A ) . As we suggest in this survey, p rivate tutoring is non a shadow that is separate from mainstream schooling. As the Kampuchean instance illustrates, it may be best understood as a cardinal component in a intercrossed agreement between public schooling and private tutoring, which operates as one individual system and casts its ain shadow.The intercrossed metaphorThe metaphor of a shadow system of instruction reaches its conceptual bounds in the context of Cambodia. During our research, we have found that the term caused more confusion than lucidity among Kampuchean efficiency members, instructors, pupils, parents, and policymakers. The ground being that the term shadow instruction suggests fee-based private tutoring is separate from, although influenced by, mainstream ( authorities ) school no affair how a shadow is distorted by the form or size of its object, it will neer be the object projecting the shadow. The premise is that the shadow and object are basically separate.In Cambodia, nevertheless, it is nor mally understood that a kid s instruction requires both authorities and private tutoring categories. Both are inseparable parts of one system necessary to have a complete instruction. As the mainstream schooling progressively relies on private tutoring to complement what is defined as instruction, the shadow and object of schooling have become one. Students typically attend one displacement ( 4 or 5 hours ) of authorities school and so go to another displacement of private tutoring categories ( 1-4 hours, depending on pupil ) each twenty-four hours, sometimes including Sundays, public vacations, and summer holiday. Students who can afford the 300-1000 Riel ( US $ 0.08-0.25 ) hourly fee for private tutoring return to school ( or teacher s place ) to hold their authorities school teacher offer lessons in what appears to be the same system of instruction. In both private tutoring and authorities school categories, furthermore, everything is for sale, therefore film overing the lines between what is public ( and free ) and private ( and for sale ) .This intercrossed system does non wipe out some of the characteristics found in shadow instruction worldwide. Rather, the intercrossed system of instruction that includes both authorities and private tutoring categories has cast a shadow of its ain some pupils will go to both authorities school and private tutoring categories with their authorities school teacher and schoolmates, and so buy extra remedial or elective private tutoring in one-on-one or group settings-what is called excess particular private tutoring-at a higher cost. There are even companies offering scrutiny readying trends to pupils in the capital, Phnom Penh. Thus, the boundaries between the typical construct of shadow instruction and the mainstream system of instruction, which is being privatized by private tutoring, are progressively blurred in the Kampuchean context.Public-Private Hybrid Education SystemIn the Kampuchean context, private tutoring is best understood in footings of a public-private intercrossed instruction system where public schooling and private tutoring seamlessly merge, projecting its ain shadow. This conceptualisation implies that private tutoring is a compulsory ( private ) part of public instruction, non a deformed shadow, and therefore complements mainstream schooling where it is structurally lacking. contradictory the metaphor of a shadow, the construct of a public-private intercrossed system suggests that public schooling and private tutoring constitute two parts of one system. This conceptualisation moves off from auxiliary private tutoring ( that is, lessons that are excess to the national course of study ) and towards complementary private tutoring ( that is, lessons that are indispensable to the national course of study ) . A public-private intercrossed system of instruction implies that pupils are required to go to and pay for both public schooling and private tutoring to successfull y finish the full national course of study. The map of complementary private tutoring therefore extends far beyond shadowing the mainstream system through remedial and/or enrichment instruction chances ( although these signifiers of auxiliary private tutoring continue to be in Cambodia ) . In the Kampuchean context, the chief signifier of complementary private tutoring-what is called Rien Kuo-assumes the maps of the mainstream instruction system itself by functioning as an of import mechanism necessary to finish the needed national course of study and increase teacher salaries-both structural failures that have complicated histories through Gallic colonialism, break away murder, Soviet support, and broad internationalism/neoliberalism.As an built-in portion of the public-private intercrossed instruction system, private tutoring assumes the same schoolroom features and teaching method as mainstream schooling. Not merely does private tutoring occur inside authorities school edifice s ( and frequently in the same schoolrooms where pupils receive official authorities school direction ) and is offered by public school instructors ( normally by the same instructors pupils have during regular school hours ) , but besides each category operates and maps in surprisingly similar ways. In peculiar, the usage of learning AIDSs, group work, interchanging pupil work, blending high and low ability pupils together, and even homework assignments happen in more or less the same mode in authorities school as private tutoring categories ( Brehm & A Silova, 2012 ) . In other words, it operates as a seamless system, which merely maps efficaciously when the two parts-public schooling and private tutoring-are offered in tandem. Furthermore, the public-private intercrossed instruction system does non halt operation when school is officially closed. Alternatively, instruction continues in the signifier of Rien Kuo Pel Vissmakkal ( Vacances ) or excess survey during vacations ( holid ay ) , when kids attend private tutoring lessons during public vacations and summer interruptions to either complete the old twelvemonth s course of study or acquire a head start on the approaching twelvemonth s course of study. In a manner, private tutoring seems to hold been consistently integrated in mainstream schooling, organizing an institutionalised public-private intercrossed educational agreement.Table 1. Different Types of Private Tutoring in CambodiaPublic-Private Hybrid Education SystemRien KuoExtra surveySome instructors conduct private tutoring lessons to their ain pupils after school hours either in school edifices or in their place. The focal point is on covering needed school course of study, which is non taught during school hours. This is the most common signifier of tutoring and the focal point of this survey. It is besides referred to as Rean Boban Porn ( auxiliary survey ) or Rean Chhnuol ( survey for hire ) .Rien Kuo Pel Vissmakkal ( Vacances )Extra survey dur ing vacations ( holiday )When pupils finish school in July or August, they frequently have the pick of go toing private tutoring lessons during the summer interruption. These categories are either conducted by their pervious screen s instructor to complete the course of study from that class or by the following class s instructor to get down the course of study before the following school twelvemonth. This gives instructors plenty time-either at the beginning or terminal of the year-to complete the national course of study.Shadow EducationRien Kuo PisesExtra particular survey regimen school teachers conduct private tutoring lessons one-on-one or for little groups of pupils, typically from the instructors authorities category. These lessons are conducted after school hours either at the instructor s place or a pupil s place. This type of private tutoring is more expensive than the former, sometimes bing every bit much as $ 100 per month for one-on-one tutoring. This type of private tutoring is either used by pupils for remedial lessons ( i.e. , shadow instruction ) or for replacing authorities school wholly. Indeed, we found one instance during our informations aggregation where a pupil came into understanding with his instructor to go to one-on-one Rien Kuo Pises and was non required to go to authorities school on a regular basis because his instructor would tag him present. This type of Rien Kuo Pises resembles private schooling more closely than shadow or intercrossed instruction.Sala AkchoanPrivate ( tutoring ) schoolThere are many types of private schools in Cambodia. From side of meat linguistic communication based schools to private universities to engineering developing centres-all of these schools are considered Sala Akchoan ( private survey ) . However, there is one type of private survey inside this class that is portion of the shadow instruction system. In Phnom Penh ( and possibly other urban countries ) , there are a few trial readying centres that fill schoolrooms each dark as pupils cram for the national scrutinies and university entryway scrutinies. The most celebrated is named Chey Thavy, which was started by a chemical science professor from the Royal University of Phnom Penh. For the class 12 scrutinies, many pupils start fixing in grade 10 or 11. Preparation for the university scrutinies typically takes topographic point during the four months between the class 12 scrutinies ( July/August ) and when the university scrutinies are administered.Rien Kuo Anglais/BarangEnglish/French supernumerary surveyGet downing in lower secondary school, the national course of study requires pupils to take foreign linguistic communication, either English ( Anglais ) or Gallic ( Barang ) . Despite that these linguistic communications are on the course of study, some pupils purchase excess categories outside of authorities school in countless private educational centres/schools/homes.This intercrossed system of instruction has besid es cast its ain shadow, reflecting the typical maps of private tutoring found within the shadow metaphor ( see Table 1 ) . Similar to private tutoring in other geographic contexts, remedial and enrichment tutoring chances are available in add-on to the traditional Rien Kuo in Cambodia. In peculiar, pupils who need excess assist understanding assorted topics can buy extra educational services to increase their cognition. This type of tutoring is less common and is often referred to as Rien Kuo Pises or excess particular private tutoring. It is offered in the signifier of one-on-one tutoring or little group lessons for pupils who need excess aid get the hanging certain topics. These categories typically cost more than Rien Kuo, sometimes every bit high as US $ 100 per month for a day-to-day category on one school topic. In add-on, private tutoring for enrichment intents is available through private tutoring concerns in Phnom Phen, where pupils cram for high-stakes scrutinies. In other words, the intercrossed system-where public schooling is integrated with private tutoring-casts a shadow that is comprised of assorted remedial and enrichment tutoring infinites.Building on the bing research of private tutoring in Cambodia, this survey examines the equity issues ensuing from a public-private intercrossed system of schooling. This research looks at the differences and similarities between private tutoring ( Rien Kuo ) and authorities school categories. selective informations from this research undertaking has besides been used in other publications to analyze how private tutoring is an extension of authorities school in footings of teaching method and curricular content ( Brehm & A Silova, 2012 ) the build of a post-conflict societal contract in the 1990s and its impact on the impression of public instruction ( Brehm, forthcoming A ) and a historical analysis of mandatory instruction ( Brehm, forthcoming B ) . A Khmer version of this study ( although non a direct interlingual rendition ) is besides available ( Tuot & A Brehm, 2012 ) . This study takes an in-depth verbiage at instruction inside authorities schools and private tutoring schoolrooms, every bit good as the deductions of private tutoring for instruction quality and equity, therefore offering a elaborate reappraisal of the informations collected for this OSI funded research undertaking ( Silova & A Brehm, 2011 ) .Research Design and MethodsThe research design consisted of three parts, including ( 1 ) an scrutiny of the province constructions, policies, and local patterns that allow for the being of the private proviso of instruction through private tutoring ( 2 ) the differences in the quality of instruction proviso between public schools and private tutoring and ( 3 ) the equity impacts on instruction and Kampuchean society because of any quality differences and known cost barriers to accessing private tutoring ( see Figure 2 ) .Using democratic research attacks, thi s survey utilized methods normally used in Participatory Rural Appraisals ( PRA ) . One of the benefits of utilizing PRA methods is that it provides a huge range and infinite for both lot every bit good as foreigners to actively take part at every phase of the research ( Narayanasamy, 2009 26 ) . By keeping focal point groups ( 5-7 wad ) and carry oning one-on-one interviews with many instruction stakeholders ( sample described in item below ) , our informations involved the engagement of many people within both the urban and rural schools under probe. The semi-structured focal point groups provided infinite for participants to research issues of quality instruction and the function private tutoring has on educational equity. We conducted semi-structured interviews as good over the class of the twelve-month informations aggregation period to make common apprehension and trust between the research workers and respondents in hopes of bring forthing more accurate information on sub jects that could be sensitive. Additionally, informal interviews helped us by prosecuting in existent or constructed duologues in order to understand the people examine in their ain footings ( sometimes described as the insider s position ) ( England cited in Sin, 2010 986 ) .Another benefit of utilizing the PRA method is triangulation of information. Our design incorporated non merely data triangulation ( roll uping informations from persons and the synergistic degree among groups ) but besides investigator triangulation and methodological triangulation. Some focal point groups were conducted by a squad of two research workers who so worked through their receiveings jointly. Furthermore, these informations points were compared with informations points obtained utilizing different methods, viz. , schoolroom observations and the analysis of academic accomplishment ( monthly classs and attending ) for pupils who were go toing private tutoring lessons and those who are non. Additi onally, we built off historical analyses and updated papers analyses of authorities policies in old research to the present. The methods used in each school are described below and the instruments used to roll up the informations can be found in the appendix.Figure 2. Research Design and MethodsThis survey is based on informations collected between January and December 2011. The sample included six schools in one territory in Cambodia, including three schools in an urban location and three schools in a rural location. 6 The territory is economically and geographically diverse, offering penetration into assorted countries throughout Cambodia. The sample was intentionally chosen to reflect a scope of private tutoring costs in different schools depending on their geographic ( urban or rural ) location. After roll uping preliminary informations on the cost for one school term of private tutoring within all lower secondary schools ( 13 ) in the territory, we selected one lower secondary school with the highest private tutoring costs ( 1,000 Riel, or about US $ 0.25, per session ) and one with lowest ( 500 Riel, or about US $ 0.13, per session ) , which besides corresponded to urban and rural countries severally. We so worked backwards to happen two primary schools that fed into each lower secondary school. The concluding schools selected were chosen by their willingness to take part in the survey.ObservationsA sum of 28 observations were conducted, including 14 observations of public school categories and 14 observations of private tutoring lessons ( see Table 2 ) . However, these observations did non include private tutoring lessons in rural primary schools, because no such lessons were held during the four months of informations aggregation. Observation rubrics were developed utilizing instruments from a World Bank commissioned study on Cambodia ( Benveniste et al. , 2008 ) that focused on learning methodological analysis, schoolroom features, and category clip usage. The inquiries within each of these classs were so compiled into an observation checklist adapted for the last twelvemonth of primary and secondary school ( classs 6 and 9 severally ) , and used for observations of teaching/learning procedures in both public school categories and private tutoring lessons. 7 Table 2. outcome of Observations by Subject and GradeClassCapable proceeds of ObservationsGovernment ClassPrivate TutoringEntireGrade 6Khmer729Matematics112Grade 9Khmer325Mathematicss123Physicss235Chemistry044Entire141428Tracking pupil attending and accomplishmentDatas on academic accomplishment and attending came from tracking 444 pupils ( see Table 3 ) , including 162 pupils in primary school ( rate 6 ) and 282 pupils in secondary school ( rate 9 ) . The pupils tracked in class 9 came from six categories 9 across four topics mathematics, Khmer linguistic communication, chemical science, and innate philosophies. Although we were able to track the same categories in the r ural school across all topics, a different group of categories was tracked in each of the topics in the urban secondary school. Therefore, although 282 pupils in class 9 were tracked, the figure of alone pupils in each topic varies depending on which group of categories was tracked in the urban class 9 171 pupils in mathematics, 208 pupils in chemical science, and 203 pupils in Khmer linguistic communication. 10 At the primary degree, one category of pupils was tracked in each school.Table 3. Trailing of Student attendance and Achievement ( Sample )Experience with Private TutoringLocationEntireRuralUrbanPrimaryPrivate Tutoring244367No Private Tutoring672895Entire Number of Tracked Students at the Primary Level162Lower SecondaryPrivate Tutoring75118193No Private Tutoring385189Entire Number of Tracked Students at the Secondary Level282Entire Number of Tracked Students444Student attending of private tutoring lessons was tracked utilizing a private tutoring attending sheet specifically designed for this survey. While most participants used the attending sheet, pupil attending in private tutoring within some urban class 9 and all rural class 6 categories was provided by either the remembrances of the instructor, the inbuilt money collected from pupils by the instructor, or an attendance sheet. These tracking systems were discussed separately with each instructor by traveling through the attending list from school and holding the instructor identify either how much money each pupil provided for private tutoring ( a record kept by some instructors ) or by be babble outing their perceptual experiences of how frequently a pupil attended private tutoring ( either by computer storage or an attendance sheet designed by the instructor ) . This allowed us to place which pupils attended at least one private tutoring lesson during our informations aggregation period. The head of each school provided authorities attending and monthly class sheets. Data presented here screen s attendance and monthly classs for one month, 11 leting for a comparing of academic accomplishment and private tutoring attending among pupils who attend private tutoring and those who do non.The academic tonss for class 9 focused on the topics of mathematics, Khmer linguistic communication, and chemical science. For class 6, we focused on a combination of mathematics and Khmer linguistic communication ( Khmer command, Khmer authorship, and Khmer reading ) . Although the sample is little, covers a short clip, and does non take into consideration external factors impacting pupil accomplishment ( parental instruction, past educational experience of the pupil, proviso of tutoring other than that provided by the instructor, etc. ) , our intent here was non to find causing between private tutoring and pupil accomplishment, but instead to foreground a disparity between pupils who go and do non travel to private tutoring as one factor that divides pupils and contributes to inequality. dig est groups and interviewsFocus groups and interviews were conducted with pupils, parents, and instructors. Participants were selected by visit withing the principal or instructor of each school or category, who so helped set up interviews and concentrate groups with community members and pupils. Although the principal or instructor could hold purposefully selected or prepared participants, this scheme was the lone politically executable option given authorities limitations. Notwithstanding these restrictions, we did happen all participants willing to speak openly approximately private tutoring and its exclusionary characteristics. Overall, 21 focal point groups were conducted, which included a sum of 118 participants ( see Table 4 ) . Focus groups were split by stakeholder groups ( pupils, instructors, and parents ) and so by their engagement in private tutoring lessons. The end of dividing the stakeholders was to increase the comfort degree among persons in each focal point group in order to research their experiences with private tutoring. The focal point groups besides discussed perceptual experiences of the impact of tutoring on instruction quality and equity. In add-on, informal interviews were conducted with 21 participants, including instructors, pupils, parents, and principals from other schools. These informal interviews focused on the experiences of persons with private tutoring, assisting us to construe some of the findings from the observations and concentrate groups.Table 4. Number of Focus Groups ( and Participants ) in Rural and Urban AreasStakeholdersPrimaryLower SecondaryCombinedClass DegreesEntireRuralUrbanRuralUrbanRuralUrbanTeachers ( entire )6 ( 28 )Private tutoring1 ( 3 )1 ( 3 )1 ( 8 )3 ( 14 )Non-private tutoring2 ( 7 )1 ( 5 )3 ( 12 )Students ( entire )11 ( 69 )Private tutoring2 ( 14 )2 ( 12 )1 ( 7 )1 ( 5 )6 ( 38 )Non-private tutoring2 ( 12 )2 ( 12 )1 ( 7 )5 ( 31 )Parents ( sum )4 ( 23 )Private tutoring1 ( 5 )1 ( 4 )2 ( 9 )Non-private tu toring1 ( 5 )1 ( 9 )2 ( 14 )Entire21 ( 118 )Note The Numberss in parenthesis are the entire figure of participants within each class.Document analysisDocument analysis included a reappraisal of authorities policies and Torahs related to instruction support and instructor wages. In add-on, we analyzed assorted studies on instruction quality and equity in Cambodia published by non-governmental organisations ( NGOs ) and international bureaus ( such as the World Bank, UNICEF, and UNESCO ) . Combined, informations gained through papers analysis, schoolroom observations, academic accomplishment and attending, every bit good as focal point groups and interviews were triangulated to ease proof of informations through cross confirmation from multiple beginnings and informations aggregation techniques. See Table 5 for an overview of the research methods.Table 5. Overview of Research MethodsObservationsA sum of 28 observations were conducted, including 14 observations of public school categor ies and 14 observations of private tutoring lessons. In primary schools, observations were conducted in mathematics and Khmer linguistic communication categories. In lower secondary schools, observations were conducted in Khmer linguistic communication, mathematics, natural philosophies, and chemical science. The same observation process was held for private tutoring lessons conducted by each instructor.How does the instructor Teach during mainstream instruction ( learning methods and curriculum content ) ?Does the instructor choose certain pupils? Who are they?What are the learning methods and content in private tutoring?How are the two instruction manners different?Trailing of Student Attendance and AchievementDatas on academic accomplishment and attending came from tracking 444 pupils, including 162 pupils in primary schools ( rate 6 ) and 282 pupils in secondary schools ( rate 9 ) . The end was to analyze whether ( and how ) private tutoring impacts pupils academic accomplishme nt in different topics.What are the differences in pupils academic accomplishment for those who do and make no go to private tutoring?Focus Groups and InterviewsFocus groups with pupils, parents, and instructors were held over the class of informations aggregation to analyze their experiences with private tutoring and their perceptual experience about the impact of private tutoring on instruction entree and quality. A sum of 21 focal point groups were conducted. In add-on, A sum of 21 informal interviews were conducted with parents, instructors, and pupils throughout the informations aggregation period.What are the chief grounds kids attend private tutoring?Which topics are most popular? How much does it be?What are the difference in learning between private tutoring and authorities school?How does private tutoring impact you, your household, and your small town?Document AnalysisGovernment policies and Torahs related to instruction, 1992-present. Focus on authorities support of ins truction and instructor wages.What are the system-driven factors ( national policies and Torahs ) lending to the rise of private tutoring?The Nature, Impact, and Implications of Rien KuoFindingssConcentrating on the range, nature, and deductions of Rien Kuo, the findings of the survey are organized around the undermentioned three chief classs ( 1 ) course of study differences between Rien Kuo and mainstream schooling, ( 2 ) accomplishment differences among pupils go toing private tutoring and those who do non, and ( 3 ) social affects of private tutoring. Before researching each of these subjects in more deepness, it is of import to supply a few descriptive statistics on the strength and signifier of private tutoring within our sample.General features of Rien KuoOf the 282 pupils tracked in class 9, 193 pupils ( 68.4 per centum ) attended at least one private tutoring category during the clip of the informations aggregation. At the primary school degree, the range of private tutorin g was lower, with 41.3 per centum of all surveyed pupils ( 67 out of 162 ) go toing private tutoring. The strength of private tutoring varied by topic in class 9, with 57 per centum of surveyed pupils go toing private tutoring in mathematics, 54 per centum in Khmer linguistic communication, and 37 per centum in chemical science ( see Table 6 ) . Comparing the strength among topics, a similar per centum of pupils accompanied private tutoring lessons in Khmer linguistic communication and mathematics, but a smaller per centum of pupils accompanied chemical science lessons. One account for the difference in frequence between Khmer linguistic communication and mathematics with chemical science is the manner in which classs are calculated. for each one month instructors administer their ain capable scrutinies to their categories. These scrutinies are neither standardized in footings of content nor monitored in footings of rating rubrics. The tonss across all topics are so added for each pupil and divided by the entire figure of possible points, which varies by month depending on the topics covered. Average capable and overall classs are reported monthly on pupil mark sheets, bespeaking the ranking of the pupil among his or her schoolmates. Across all degrees of schooling, the topics of Khmer linguistic communication and mathematics account for 100 points ( sometimes more 12 ) while the other topics merely account for 50 points on monthly mark sheets. This means hiting higher in Khmer linguistic communication or mathematics will hold a greater positive impact on pupils overall grade each month than making good on topics like chemical science, which merely account for 50 points. 13 A farther analysis of informations by geographic location ( rural versus urban ) reveals a higher strength of private tutoring usage in urban countries compared to rural countries. In primary schools, for illustration, 60.5 per centum of urban pupils attended private tutoring categories co mpared to 26.4 per centum of pupils in rural countries. The one exclusion within our informations set is for Khmer linguistic communication private tutoring in class 9 where more rural pupils attended private tutoring than urban pupils. This divergent determination can be explained in two ways. First, it can be partly attributed to parental pick. If parents can merely afford private tutoring in one topic, Khmer linguistic communication was perceived as most valuable because of the rating policies described above and the general perceptual experience that literacy is a necessary life accomplishment. Second, within the rural categories tracked, 19 pupils who attended private tutoring were supported ( i.e. , provided money to go to private tutoring ) by an NGO. Without fiscal support to pay the private tutoring fees, these 19 pupils would most probably non hold attended the excess classs in any topic. Controling for these pupils, we find that merely 39 per centum of pupils attend Khmer linguistic communication private tutoring in the rural school compared to 52 per centum in the urban school. This is in understanding with the general determination of a higher strength of private tutoring within urban schools.There were besides noticeable differences between authorities school and private tutoring category sizes. Since Rien Kuo is seldom offered in a one-on-one scene and is alternatively taught to larger groups of pupils, it closely resembles categories in mainstream schools. Nevertheless, Rien Kuo category sizes are by and large smaller than those in mainstream schools. 14 Based on our observations and attending trailing, the mean category size of authorities school in class 9 ( both urban and rural ) was 42 pupils. By contrast, private tutoring categories were, on norm, 21 pupils. Interrupting these informations down by location, we find that the mean category size in authorities school is 56 pupils in the urban lower secondary school and 35 pupils in the rural lower secondary school. By contrast, private tutoring categories were on mean 37 pupils and 17 pupils in urban and rural schools, severally. This suggests that private tutoring categories are ( 1 ) smaller than authorities school irrespective the location, and ( 2 ) urban countries have larger category sizes in both authorities school categories and private tutoring lessons compared to rural countries.Table 6. chroma of Private Tutoring by Subject, Grade 9Students in authorities categoryStudents in private tutoring% of pupils in private tutoringMathematicssUrban583560.34Rural1136355.75Entire1719857.31ChemistryUrban955861.05Rural1131916.81Entire2087737.02Khmer LanguageUrban904752.22Rural1136456.64Entire20311154.68Course of study differencesGiven that Rien Kuo by and large takes topographic point on school evidences, normally in the same schoolrooms where authorities school categories are held, there are some interesting continuities between Rien Kuo and mainstream schooling. Data co llected from schoolroom observations and triangulated with interviews and concentrate groups suggest that private tutoring is in many respects a continuance of authorities school in footings of learning methodological analysis and course of study content ( see Table 7 ) . For illustration, instructors appear to delegate prep ( 43 per centum of private tutoring categories observed and 64 in authorities categories ) and even present new stuff in private tutoring lessons ( 36 per centum of the private tutoring categories and 79 per centum of authorities categories ) . Likewise, pupils appear to be involved in similar activities in both authorities categories and private tutoring lessons, including replying multiple pick inquiries ( 14 per centum ) and reacting to instructors give illustration to whole category ( 78 per centum ) .Table 7. Similarities between Government School and Private Tutoring ClasssTeacher PedagogyGovernment SchoolN=14% of categories observed ( figure of categories observed )Private TutoringN=14% of categories observed ( figure of categories observed )High ability pupils work with low ability pupils28.6 ( 4 )14.3 ( 2 )High ability pupils help learn whole category71.4 ( 10 )50.0 ( 7 )Name on weak pupils to reply inquiries50.0 ( 7 )42.9 ( 6 )Students answer multiple pick inquiries14.3 ( 2 )14.3 ( 2 )Students answer inquiries at board100.0 ( 14 )71.4 ( 10 )Teacher assigns prep64.3 ( 9 )42.9 ( 6 )Teacher nowadayss new stuff78.6 ( 11 )35.7 ( 5 )Teacher provides whole category direction100.0 ( 14 )85.7 ( 12 )Students answer in chorus71.4 ( 10 )64.3 ( 9 )Teacher gives illustration to whole category78.6 ( 11 )78.6 ( 11 )The focal point groups with instructors provided in-depth qualitative information to congratulate the observations sing learning methodological analysis and the course of study used in authorities school categories and private tutoring lessons. The first subject that emerged in the focal point groups was the overpowering theory that the national course of study is excessively long to finish during authorities school hours. Some instructors said they had to hotfoot through the course of study to complete on clip and feared being held accountable for non completing. For illustration, one instructor who conducts private tutoring explainedWe rush to maintain up with the course of study. During official school hours , we teach merely theory and give merely a few illustrations. If pupils go to private tutoring, they can pattern at the board because there are fewer pupils who goaWe can non acquire all pupils to pattern at the board in authorities category. It requires a batch of clip.The haste to complete the course of study is a consequence of a course of study excessively full to finish during the allotted clip. One history instructor who sends his kids to private tutoring explained The ministry allows small clip to learn . I teach based on the allowed clip. If the course of study is non finished, so I allow it travel because there is non adequate clip. Although I try my best, it is still impossible to learn everything . The bulk of instructors agreed that the course of study clip provided by the MoEYS was non sufficient for pupils to pattern the theory they learned during school hours and that they conducted private tutoring to supply more pattern clip for pupils to complement the cognition gained. In other words, private tutoring provided the necessary clip to complete the course of study to a perceived higher criterion. As one instructor who does non carry on private tutoring explained, Private tutoring instructors take the lessons learned in the authorities category and supply more pattern in private tutoring. They even add more stuff excluded in the authorities category . From instructors positions, quality instruction could non be achieved during regular school hours. One of the

Microbiology Coursework: Bacillus Cereus

Microbiology Coursework vitamin B complex genus Cereus After investigation following on outbreak of fare poisoning at a pizza restaurant, it was found that all suffers had consumed a portion of side salad from the self-service salad bar alongside their main dish. Subsequently, this was further traced to a sieve salad. Environmental wellness Officers investigating this outbreak suspected it may sacrifice been caused by barn genus Cereus (B. genus Cereus). The presence of large numbers of B. cereus in a food is indicative of active outgrowth and proliferation of the organism and is consistent with a potential hazard to health. The diagnosis of B. ereus can be strengthened by the isolation of to a greater extent than one hundred five B. cereus organisms per gram from epidemiologically implicated food, but such testing is often not done because the illness is relatively harmless and usually self-limiting 1. construct a method(s) to enumerate the i)Total bacterial count ii)Bacillu s cereus count In the rice saladThis outbreak of food poisoning could be investigated by per straininging an register ( abode count) of the total viable bacteria in the rice salad on a general non-selective nutrient agar-agar using either the pour or the spread plate method. To confirm that the outbreak had been caused by any B. ereus present in the rice salad a selective media agar, such as mannitol egg yolk polymixin agar (MEYP/MYP), should be used. Once B. cereus has been confirmed a further enumeration of the B. cereus should be performed on the MEYP/MYP agar selective media plate to show whether the add together of B. cereus present is within the range known to cause food poisoning 105107 cells g? 1 of food for Diarrhoeal syndrome, or 105108 cells g? 1 of food for Emetic syndrome. (Granum & Lund, 2006) To perform a total cell count and the confirmation of B. cereus by either the pour or spread plate method the equipment required is as followsGeneral non-selective agar Mannit ol egg yolk polymixin agar (MEYP/MYP) Petri dishes Glass or disposable hockey game stick spreader Bunsen burner Test tubes Ringers solution Pastettes / Pippettes Food blender Before a cell count can be performed a consecutive dilution of an homogenate of the rice salad is required. For this one part rice salad is blended to nine part ringers solution, from this initial homogenate that the serial dilution is created by taking 1ml of this original and adding it to 9ml of ringers solution thereby creating a 110 dilution of the original.This step is repeated a further 5 times, each time taking 1ml from the dilution created in the previous tube and adding it to 9ml of ringers solution thereby with each step the original sample is diluted by a further factor of 10, (Figure 1). Once the serial dilution has been completed down to a dilution of 11,000,000 (10-6) either the pour or spread plate method of plating out of the samples can be performed Figure 1 Serial dilution When using a gener al non-selective agar some(prenominal) the pour and spread plate methods can be used for enumeration of the total bacteria in the rice salad.With both methods all plates are performed in triplicate. Along-side the non-selective agar, an agar such as MEYP/MYP selective agar which is selective for B. cereus can be used to confirm that B. cereus is present in the original sample. In the pour plate method 1ml or 0. 1ml of each of the dilutions prepared earlier within the serial dilution are added to case-by-case petri dishes and a nutrient agar which is held at around 50oC is poured over each of these samples, the petri dishes are swirled causing gentle agitation and mixing the bacteria with the agar.After the agar has curdled the plates are incubated, after this incubation the pour plates show bacterial growth both on and within the agar due to aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. In the spread plate method 0. 1ml of each of the serial dilution solutions is pipetted onto the surface of a pre-poured agar plate and spread using a hockey stick spreader, the agar plates are then incubated. Bacterial colonies only grow on the surface of the spread plate, (Figure 2) Figure 2 Method of Pour and spread plate technique. microbic Growth, 2011) Once the plates have been incubated they are examined and the number of colonies counted, only plates that show surrounded by 30-300 colonies are counted, if the number of colonies is above 300 then the plate is discarded as too numerous to count, if below 30 it is discarded as too few to count. After the plates showing between 30-300 colonies have been counted the number of bacteria in the original sample can be worked out using the calculation Number of colonies on plate x dilution of sample = number of bacteria / mlIf growth has occurred on the MEYP/MYP plates, a Gram stain can be performed on a sample from one of the colonies, when the gram stain is examined under oil tightness B. cereus should appear as large Gram-positive bacill i in short-to-long chains with spores that are ellipsoidal, central to subterminal, and that do not swell the sporangium. (Tallent, Rhodehamel , Harmon, & Bennett, 2012) (Figure 3) Figure 3 ladder diagram showing order of events leading to the enumeration of total bacteria and Bacillus cereus in a sample of food. 2.Explain why MEYP/MYP agar is selective for Bacillus cereus B. cereus is mannitol-negative. The mannitol content of the medium thus allows differentiation of the accompanyingmannitol-positive microbial flora which are identified by a deepen in colour of the indicator phenol red to yellow. B. cereus is not affected by concentrations of polymyxin which inhibit the common accompanying microbial flora (Donovan, 1958). addition of polymyxin is necessary, however, if the sample material is suspected to contain high-numbers of accompanying microorganisms B. cereus produces lecithinase.The insoluble degradation products of egg-yolk lecithin accumulate around the Cereus colonies to form a white precipitate. A lecithinase reaction occurs very early in many strains, Cereus colonies can, wherefore, often be rapidly identified before accompanying polymyxin-resistant microorganisms have had a knock to fully develop. Incubation 18-40 hours at 32 C. B. cereus appears as rough, dry colonies with a pink to purple base which are surrounded by a ring of dense precipitate. Colonies surrounded by a yellow or a clear zone are not Bacillus cereus.Further tests should be performed to confirm the identity of Bacillus cereus (anaerobic degradation of D(+)glucose, degradation of gelatin, positive nitrate reduction). (Merck, 2012) 3. Suggest how health officers may have come to the tentative conclusion of B. cereus poisoning. Health officers may have come to this conclusion based on the short incubation time to the sudden onset of illness, and due to rice already being implicated as the source of this type of food poisoning in other cases. 4. Suggest ways in which i. The ri ce salad might have been infected by the Bacillus cereus ii.The Bacillus cereus could have survived the normal cooking process of the rice iii. Bacillus cereus causes food poisoning. B. cereus is present in the outer casing of rice and, because it is able to form spores that are very resistant to low or high temperatures, it can thus easily survive cooking and less-than perfect refrigeration. Improper storage of food stuffs is the issue. Bacillus cereus spores can survive boiling and if the food, in this case rice is stored at ambient temperature, the spores can germinate into toxin producing bacteria. Herriman, 2009) Bacillus cereus has been reported to be present in stools of healthy humans at varying levels (Johnson, 1984) therefore if an individual had not washed their hands after going to the toilet then handled the military service spoon any B. cereus from the hands could be transferred to the serving spoon which in turn could either infect the rice salad or the hand of the person next using the spoon. When rice is boiled and then stored in the fridge without being cooled first, these spores can germinate on the cooked rice and grow well at 4oC.If the rice is then used in a splattering fry or similar dish, where the cooking time is relatively short, or the rice is held at an insufficient temperature enough of the bacteria survive to be ingested. Bacillus cereus causes food poisoning of two different types, emetic and diarrhoeal. (Table 1) Table 1. Characteristics of the two types of disease caused by Bacillus cereus Diarrhoeal syndromeEmetic syndrome Infective dose105107 (total)105108 (cells g? 1) Toxin producedIn the small intestine of the hostPreformed in foods Type of toxinProteinCyclic peptide Incubation period816 h (occasionally >24 h)0. 5 h Duration of illness1224 h (occasionally several days)624 h SymptomsAbdominal pain, reeking diarrhoea and occasionally nauseaNausea, vomiting and malaise (sometimes followed by diarrhoea, due to additional enterotoxin production? ) Foods most frequently implicatedMeat products, soups, vegetables, puddings/sauces and milk/milk productsStarch-rich foods deep-fried and cooked rice, pasta, pastry and noodles The form that produces diarrhoea is accompanied by symptoms that are virtually indistinguishable from those caused by the Clostridium perfingens bacteria.The affected person experiences abdominal cramps and severe watery diarrhoea within about 15 hours of eating the contaminated rice. Vomiting rarely occurs but the diarrhoea carries on between 1 and 2 days. The diarrhoetic syndromes observed in patients are thought to stem from the three toxins Hemolysin BL Hbl, Nonhemolytic Enterotoxin Nhe and Cytotoxin K CytK. These enterotoxins are all produced in the small intestine of the host, thus frustrative the issue of digestion by host endogenous enzymes. Some strains of the bacteria have an extra plasmid that carries a gene for a toxin that causes severe vomiting.These strains cause the emetic form of Bacillus cereus and produce symptoms very similar to food poisoning by Staphylococcus aureus. After ingesting rice contaminated with these strains, vomiting begins between 1 and 5 hours. The effects are fairly short-lived and the digestive system usually returns to normal within about 24 hours. The emetic form is commonly caused by rice that is not cooked for a time and temperature sufficient to kill any spores present, then improperly refrigerated. It can produce a toxin, cereulide, which is not inactivated by later reheating. This form leads to nausea and vomiting 15 hours after consumption.It can be difficult to distinguish from other short-term bacterial foodborne pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureusReferences Microbial Growth. (2011). Retrieved meet 3, 2012, from The Growth Of Bacterial Cultures http//classes. midlandstech. com/carterp/Courses/bio225/chap06/Microbial%20Growth%20ss5. htm Donovan, K. O. (1958). A selective medium for Bacillus cereus in milk. J . Appl. Bact. (21), 100-103. Granum, P. , & Lund, T. (2006, January 17). Bacillus cereus and its food poisoning toxins. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 157(2), 223-228. doi10. 1111/j. 1574-6968. 1997. tb12776. x Herriman, R. (2009, September 13). Food-Borne Intoxication Bacillus Cereus. Retrieved March 6, 2012, from ezinearticles. com http//ezinearticles. com/? Food-Borne-IntoxicationBacillus-Cereus&id=2915150 Johnson, K. M. (1984). Bacillus cereus food-borne illness. An update. J Food Prot, 47, 145153. Merck. (2012). MYP Agar. Retrieved March 01, 2012, from Merck Microbiology Manual 12th Edition http//www. mibius. de/out/oxbaseshop/html/0/images/wysiwigpro/MYP_Agar_105267_engl. pdf Tallent, S. M. , Rhodehamel , E. , Harmon, S. M. , & Bennett, R. W. (2012, February 02). BAM Bacillus cereus. Retrieved March 05, 2012, from FDA U. S. Food and Drug Administration